Interest Groups Essay Example for Free

Interest Groups Essay They vary considerably in size and ideological perspectives. The strategies and tools employed by interest groups are not static, and they differ depending on the geographical scope of their operations and the resources they have. While many interest groups tend to address a wide range of issues, others deal with distinct issues. The life span of interest groups is also not static. In this case, some groups have long term objectives; hence, they remain active for long duration. For instance, the interest groups that aim at challenging policy issues and politics operate on a long term basis. On the other hand, some groups are usually initiated with an aim of achieving a particular end after which they are dissolved. For example, during elections, many groups usually emerge with an aim of ensuring that the process is handled according to the stipulated guidelines of the electoral process. A representative government is always formulated in manner that facilitates participation of contending interests, and at the same time it tries to mitigate the variance that inexorably accompanies faction competition. In the traditional creation of pluralism, contending interests work together by mobilizing resources and opinions in order to enhance effective formulation and implementation of essential public policies. â€Å"Institutions are formed to accommodate the inevitability of diverse and competing interest from becoming powerful enough to undermine the rights of others† (Wilson, 2009). This process is governed by constitutional provisions, which stipulate the nature of interest groups’ activities. Therefore, many interest groups that work together tend to stabilize political environment, and this enables them to forward their interests to the government. â€Å"This implies that the pluralist vision of politics is an ideal vision of interest group politics and political institutions† (Barber, 1990). The activities conducted by various interest groups can be used to differentiate them. For instance, some of them endeavor to address several public issues, while others have a narrow scope of private interests. There are two distinct types of interest groups, and they can be described as follows. First, we have public interest groups, and they aim at working on issues that benefit the general public. For instance, they support policies that provide equal opportunities that can be enjoyed by everyone in the society. However, the success of public interest groups may not be very substantial at an individual level since they aim at reaching out to many people. â€Å"Some of the major public interest groups in his category are National Taxpayer’s Union and Concerned Women for America† (Orman, 1988). The second category is referred to as private interest groups. These are groups which endeavor to challenge public policies in order to specifically benefit their members or individuals that support their interests. Nonetheless, the objectives and activities of private interests groups should not interfere with the welfare of other individuals. Political self interest is perceived to b e healthy for a political system. In the USA, there is a popular belief that contending interests make the society more successful. This is because bad policies are always eliminated when various groups compete against each other â€Å"Other examples of interest groups include business organizations labor unions, Professional associations, and Non Governmental Organizations† (Grossman, 2002). The Relationship between Interest Groups and Political Parties There is no great disparity between political parties and various interest groups, because they are both composed of individuals having common objectives and opinions. Apart from this, â€Å"they are similar in the sense that they both seek to challenge government institutions, elections, and they all make public policy choices† (Brunell, 2005). Nonetheless, there are significant variations between these two bodies. Generally, interest groups never directly support their own members to contest for public office, especially in a case where economic parameter is concerned. In most cases, interest groups never adopt overt party labels, which electors use to identify and express their political affiliations (Dulilio Wilson, 2011). However, some electors may link particular interest groups with specific parties in a general manner. For example, the Tea Party is often linked with the Republicans and the white conservatives. In the recent past, public interest groups that are ideologically driven have increased considerably (King, 2011). For instance, a there are some groups which have pushed the tax agenda in political circles. Another distinguishing factor is that interest groups have a limited focus, and they only handle specific issues of concern in the public policy. For example, â€Å"interest groups form around specific concerns like environment, free speech, tax reform, and labor standards† (Petracca, 1992). In contrast to this, political parties tend to focus on several issues. Moreover, political parties try to merge some of these facades under one â€Å"big umbrella†. In some circumstances, interest groups seriously struggle against political parties. For instance, some internal rivalries have been witnessed in key political parties that operate in Texas. When elections were conducted in 2000, several environmentalists who were members of the Texas Democratic Party massively supported Ralph Nader, the Green Party candidate, since they felt that Al Gore was less committed toward environmental issues. They labeled him â€Å"not green enough†. On the other hand, some Republicans have tried to make the party conservative by working against some of their Republican colleagues. This indicates that the interest groups tend to favor parties and politicians that support their interests, and they ignore those who are less committed in helping them. Interest groups always aim at maximizing policies, while political parties are usually trying to obtain many Congress seats. These competing interests influence the manner political parties relate with the interest groups. According Thomas Brunell, â€Å"interest groups have a preference as which party controls a majority of seats in Congress, which leads them to direct â€Å"sincere† and electorally useful money to this party† (Hay, 2001) When interest groups offer funds to the â€Å"other† party, they always fund it in a manner that is less effective. Interest groups usually execute this goal by offering strategic funds to this party as follows: provide little financial support particularly to the popular candidates who do not necessarily have to be funded in order to succeed in the elections. They can also choose to fund incumbent candidates who already have political clout. Therefore, even if these groups offer funds to these parties, they always do it in a biased manner, and they favor only the parties that are likely to push forward their interests. These funds enable their preferred candidates to run their campaigns smoothly without experiencing financial hitches. Apart from offering finances, interest groups also provide key information that enables their favorite candidates to be more competitive than other contenders. They also sensitize their preferred candidates on issues that always influence election outcomes. All these services are organized by interest groups with an aim of fulfilling their common objective of influencing election results and policies. The fact that these institutions have a relationship is therefore undeniable. These groups often forge close ties and pursue similar objectives in order to enhance their political clout. Nonetheless, they remain independent, and their nature of operation and design also remain different. â€Å"The space for action, speech and flexibility that is maintained in politics makes them much more political than interest groups† (Grossman, 2002). How Interest Groups Try to Influence the President and the Congress? Although interest groups do not directly have elected members in political offices, they do aim at fixing their members into appointed positions. They normally do this to enable them perform their state functions through mechanisms that support the desired policies of the interests groups that facilitated their appointments. The fact that â€Å"groups† operate as political players has always been recognized and examined, even if not properly understood. The manipulation of legislative processes by groups is a question that has not yet been answered, and it is still being begged. Between the period of the 1970 and 1980s, some â€Å"explosions† were witnessed in Washington, and researchers have wanted to clearly understand them. As many groups emerged in Washington, many people joined them, and the groups increasingly funded parties. The citizens at the same time criticized the roles of interest groups and joined them in large numbers probably to suppress the powerful corporate groups. The role of groups in policy issues seemed to have taken a new dimension, and everyone was keen to see how it happened. Therefore, it can be argued that group manipulation of the Congress can be identified by simply examining the development of legislation that a group is favoring. For instance, a group’s ineffectiveness in legislative process can be measured through its failure to intercept unpopular bills. In general, â€Å"interest group activities predict, at least in part, how far bills will progress through the legislative process† (Brunell, 2005). The term influence as applied in this context is quite narrow from the perspective of interest groups, and it is broad from a congressional perspective. Interest groups perceive influence as a process that should produce good policies or prevent undesirable policies from being adopted. However, a group does not have to obtain policies from the Congress that directly indicate their actual desires; rather a group’s influence is seen when the Congress makes or discards a policy, which is in line with the interests of a group. From a congressional perspective, influence emerging from interest groups can come in several ways. Interest groups are often said to have manipulated the Congress when its members are compelled or encouraged to change the course or provisions of a given bill in order to meet the demands of the interest groups. This influence might come in the form of a change of wording, a passage from a subcommittee, and not passing from a standing committee† (Orman, 1988). In this process, interest groups may lead to the change of legislation, and the president may not have the capacity to reverse the whole process of legislation, even if he does not like the content of the bill. On the other hand, the president can also manipulate the Congress by working closely with the interest groups. As discussed above, the law making process can be indirectly manipulated through elections. For instance, an incumbent President may pass some bills in favor of some groups so that he may get some support from them during the next elections. Besides this, interest groups may support pliable candidates whom they can easily manipulate during the law making processes. This symbiotic relationship between the interest groups and the politicians to some extent affect the capacity of both the president and the Congress to formulate effective laws. Politics in America has become complicated to many politicians. This is because interest groups have managed to seriously entrench themselves in politics and much of their attention has been geared towards influencing the White House. â€Å"Since the American President has come to play an increasingly important role in the public policy process, interest groups and their lobbyists now descend on the presidency with the same vigor as they descend on the congress† (Orman, 1988). In this context, the president is faced with the challenge of fulfilling the needs of the ordinary citizens and the interest groups. Interest groups have faced much criticism especially when it comes to policy issues. Its critics contend that most of the policy issues dealt with by interests groups have no connection to the desires of the public. The leaders of these groups have also been blamed for being dishonest because they always fail to fulfill the demands of their members. The weaknesses of the interests groups have been seen as one of the factors interfering with democracy in the USA. It has also been noted with a lot of concern that some political candidates have been seriously intimidated by some interest groups, and this further affects the reputation of the interest groups. Conclusion  The above discussion indicates that the American government is guided various institutions, which work together with an aim of building a more democratic society. The interest groups have been instrumental in addressing the plight of the public by ensuring that policy issues are handled properly. The effectiveness of the government has also been enhanced by the numerous contending interests. The American government has been able to adopt better policies due to the serious competition that exists among various institutions. These groups have played a fundamental role of widening the democratic space in America. The American government has been influenced by several groups over the years to an extent that some individuals refer to it as â€Å"a world of interest groups†. The interest groups should, therefore remain committed towards enhancing democracy and good governance. And I think those groups have same mission, its to make the government do something right like that should be. for example, national education thinks that the system of lesson in ur country have to be changed because it is not effective, so the collect the data to support their argument, and send it to government, and hope it will influence the policy.

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity

Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Gender Differences in Neurotoxicity Abstract Neurotoxicity is damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral and central nervous systems. It is a common outcome of exposure to hundreds of environmental chemicals, which act via a wide range of mechanisms. Due to the fundamental importance of the nervous system to a fully functioning body, the neurotoxic effects of many chemicals have been well investigated. There is evidence from a number of studies of a difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins between genders. Males appear to be more vulnerable than females. There may be many reasons for this difference, a key one being the neuroprotective activities of the gonadal (sex) hormones, which differ between males and females. The female hormone, oestrogen, is thought to have greater protective activity, from a wide range of chemicals than the male hormone, testosterone. This report will examine the available evidence of a gender difference in susceptibility to environmental neurotoxins, and look into the actions of hormones within the nervous system as one of the main reasons for this difference. Introduction The nervous system (NS) is a fundamental component of a fully functioning human body. Due to the immense importance of the NS, any damage that occurs to this system will have huge repercussions throughout the whole body. Unfortunately, the NS is extremely vulnerable, and neurons, with their unique shape, and long, thin extensions protruding from their cell bodies, are highly susceptible to degeneration, from ageing and from exogenous substances (1, 2). It has been observed that exposure to a range of different environmental chemicals can have adverse effects on the NS, resulting in degeneration of neurons, and leading to onset of various neurological diseases (2, 3). The developing NS in particular is extremely sensitive to the effects of such chemicals (2, 4). Prenatal, and early postnatal, exposure to environmental chemicals, such as lead and those in tobacco smoke, can affect the developmental process within the Central Nervous System (CNS). This can lead to slowed and incorrect development, and neurological problems in the early years of life (4). From both animal studies, and human case reports of inadvertent exposures, there is also evidence to suggest a difference between males and females in their susceptibilities to neurotoxicity of some environmental chemicals (5). There are a number of reasons why this may be, including differences in amounts and activities of metabolic enzymes, differences in rates of absorption between the sexes, different rates of clearance of exogenous substances from the body, and differences in exposure to neurotoxic chemicals; diet, hobbies, occupations, etc (6). However, a key reason may be the neuroprotection that is conferred by gonadal hormones, and their metabolites, within the NS (5). The aim of this report is to research evidence of sex differences in responses to environmental chemicals, and investigate hormonal influences as one of the reasons for this difference. Neurotoxicity of Environmental Chemicals Neurotoxicity is a term used to describe damage to the structure and/or function of the peripheral NS (PNS) and CNS, brought about by exposure to particular exogenous substances (7, 8), which act via a range of mechanisms to induce cellular changes, and often cell death (7). Neurotoxicity can be seen in all ages of individuals exposed to hazardous chemicals, however, the developing NS is particularly vulnerable to their effects (2, 4, 7). Development of the NS involves a series of very specific steps, over a prolonged time period, each one occurring only when the previous is finished, and disruption to these events leads to incorrect development and neurological problems (4). The blood-brain barrier (BBB), which prevents many substances from passing to the brain, is not fully complete until several months of age, leaving the NS susceptible to damage (7). The entire NS is not fully mature until puberty (4). A great number of the reports published concerning neurotoxic effects of chemi cals have reported observations on child subjects. This is due to the fact that the developing NS is much more vulnerable, and so the neurotoxic effects may be more easily noticed. There are over 200 chemicals that have been confirmed as neurotoxic to humans (and other animals)as a result of exposure to them (3). A number of these chemicals are identified in Panel 1 (3), and can be divided into groups; metals, organic solvents, pesticides, and other neurotoxic chemicals. Panel 1. There are over 200 chemicals known to cause neurotoxicity in humans. This list identifies some common ones. Adapted from (3). Chemicals in bold and red are those identified within this report. Different toxins have distinct mechanisms through which they influence the NS. This depends on dose, route and duration of exposure (9). Those chemicals which are most widespread in the environment, and those which cause the most drastic effects, have been extensively investigated, and many of the mechanisms causing neurotoxicity have been identified (9). Given the knowledge of these effects, it is important to investigate the possible neurotoxic influences of the large number of other chemicals prevalent in the environment. Mechanisms of neurotoxicity The main mechanisms encompassed by the afore-mentioned groups of substances include; induction of oxidative stress, alterations to neurotransmitter synthesis including inhibition of synaptic signalling, accumulation of the substance within mitochondria leading to dysfunction, alterations to the flow of ions across neuronal membranes, activation of second messengers to induce apoptosis or inhibit neurogenesis, disruption of DNA/RNA, affecting the differentiation and functioning of glial cells, to indirectly influence neuronal cells, alterations to membrane fluidity, abnormal expression of neurotrophic factors (7, 10-20). There is a requirement for metals in many body processes, including within the NS, providing an additional mechanism by which exogenous metals can induce neurotoxicity (17). They can compete with essential metals for protein binding sites and influence cellular processes (17). For example, lead competes with zinc, which is known to have binding sites present in many important receptor channels, such as the N-methyl-D-aspartate (NMDA) receptor involved in glutamate signalling at the synapse. Lead can displace zinc, and therefore alter functioning of these channels, and so influence glutamatergic functions in the NS (13, 14, 17). A relatively recently proposed mechanism thought to induce neurotoxicity via environmental chemicals, is endocrine disruption. Endocrine disruption is believed to be a crucial mechanism of most neurotoxicants, including metals, solvents, pesticides, Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs), Diethylstilbesterol (DES), etc (21-25). Endocrine disrupting chemicals act by mimicking, enhancing, or antagonising the effects of endogenous oestrogens and androgens (21, 22). Their actions can result in alterations to hormone synthesis and/or release, altered transport and clearance of hormones, altered binding of hormones to their receptors (by binding themselves, thereby either mimicking hormone response, or blocking hormonal activation (24)), or altering components of pathways following receptor activation (22). An example of an endocrine disrupting mechanism is one used by lead, which lowers blood levels of testosterone, thereby de-masculinising certain areas of the male brain, and PCBs, which both mimic and antagonise various oestrogenic functions, and disturb production of androgens (21). As hormones are known to have a role in the development of the CNS, including sexual differentiation (26), disruption to their activities may result in disruption to the development of some brain areas, and the possibility of feminisation or masculinisation of particular brain areas (21-25). The neuroprotective function of hormones (discussed later) may also be hindered due to the endocrine disrupting actions of certain chemicals, allowing for their other neurotoxic mechanisms to have greater damaging effects. Neurotoxic investigations Carrying out investigations into the effects of neurotoxic chemicals is much more difficult in humans than it is in other animals, due to the greater difficulty in controlling the surrounding environment and its influences, and there are many potential variables that can have an effect on the overall result, in particular exposure to other environmental chemicals, drugs, alcohol, tobacco, education, culture, etc (27-31). All the potential confounding factors must be taken into consideration in order to analyse the neurotoxic effects only of the chemical in question (32). Often, environmental chemicals induce delayed neurotoxicity, whereby a patient does not present with symptoms until well after exposure to the chemical has ended, providing another problem to investigators (4). There are many different symptoms that can present upon neurotoxicity; migraines or headaches, confusion, memory loss, Multiple Sclerosis (MS)-like symptoms, problems with sleep, balance and hearing, attention impairment and trouble concentrating, anxiety and depression (8). Alterations to cognitive function, motor function and behaviour are common outcomes of neurotoxicity, and are a useful assessment of the effects of exposure to chemicals (32, 33). There are a wide range of different tests commonly used to assess neurotoxicity to the PNS and CNS (4, 32, 33). Measurements of functions such as motor reflexes, insensitivity to pinpricks on the skin, or impairment of sensitivity to temperature and vibration, provide evidence of PNS toxicity (4, 32, 33). Other functional tests, including IQ (Intelligence Quotient) tests, memory tests, assessment of mood and personality, and behavioural questionnaires, are used to assess toxicity to the CNS (4, 32, 33). Damage to the Nervous System can also be established by use of various brain imaging techniques (e.g. Computed Tomography, Magnetic Resonance Imaging) (9). These are useful in observing physical alterations to brain size and appearance caused by brain tissue atrophy following neurotoxic exposure (9). It is also possible, using these images, to ascertain which regions of the brain are particularly affected (9, 33-35). Despite the large quantity of literature outlining investigations concerning exposure to different neurotoxic chemicals, there are relatively few publications available that have identified a difference in response between males and females. Differences between susceptibilities of a range of age groups, and groups with varying levels of exposure, have been acknowledged frequently (27, 36-38), however reports are rare in which results for men and women are assessed independently, therefore it is often difficult to determine any differences in susceptibility between the sexes. Many reports record numbers of each sex taking part in the study, and match controls accordingly, then proceed to analyse results as a whole (27, 28, 39-45). Others exclude female subjects altogether, rather than including analysis of female results, but separate from the male (29, 30, 46-51). This is often the case when the number of female subjects is small compared to men. However, the results could still be analysed, and any differences between them could be noted. Some fail to establish which sexes have been used at all (52-54). Nevertheless, there is evidence from a number of reports, of a difference between genders in neurological functioning following exposure to neurotoxic chemicals. An extensive search using MEDLINE and EMBASE, of published studies and case reports into neurotoxicity of environmental chemicals, identified a number of studies which observed differences between males and females. For the purpose of this report, only those chemicals with gender differences have been mentioned. Evidence of Gender Differences in neurological outcomes of exposure to Neurotoxic Chemicals Metals There are roughly 40 different metals that exist in the environment, some of which are essential for life to occur (e.g. copper, zinc, etc), others which arent (e.g. mercury, lead, etc) (9). Exposure to metals in the environment has been known to cause adverse effects to both the adult and child human NS for many years (3). The neurotoxic effects of these metals are particularly well characterised, and have been well investigated. Included in this report are three of the major neurotoxic metals, of which there has been much exposure to in the environment, and of which there has been some indication of a sex difference in susceptibility to neurotoxic effects; mercury, lead and manganese. These three metals have been more extensively investigated than others, and therefore sex differences observed should not be ruled out of others, and may also be noted if they are as well examined. Mercury Mercury can take various different forms, each of which has distinct effects on human systems (18). Methylmercury (e.g. contaminated seafood), ethylmercury (e.g. Thimerosol, a component of some vaccines), elemental Mercury (present in industrial vapours), and inorganic mercury compounds (e.g. skin lightening creams) (18). Of these forms, methylmercury has been acknowledged as having the greatest detrimental effect on the correct functioning of the human NS, and in particular, the developing nervous system of children (18). In adults, methylmercury is thought to damage specific brain regions, such as the visual cortex, and parts of the cerebellum, whereas in children, as the NS is not completely developed, the effects are thought to be more widespread (7). It has been observed in a number of studies that male children show greater impairments in NS functioning following exposure than female children. In certain neurological tests, which have an association with methylmercury exposure, namely those assessing finger tapping, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination ability, males achieve poorer results (8, 36, 37, 55-57). As the majority of studies reporting results individually for male and female subjects are those carried out in children, the main sex differences reported here have been observed in children. However, similar results are noted in those adult investigations where males and females were analysed separately (27). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983), Cordier et al. (2002), Myers et al. (2003), Grandjean et al. (1998), and Marsh et al. (1987), all carried out numerous different tests on school children exposed to methylmercury at varying concentrations, pre- and post-natally. Each of these groups identified that, for those tests which have been shown to be more affected by increasing methylmercury levels, including finger-tapping, abnormal muscle tone, tendon reflexes, and leg coordination, male children showed poorer results (19, 57-60). McKeowyn-Eyssen et al. (1983) carried out the same tests on adults, and found an indication of a similar sex difference, with men being more likely than women to develop neurological disorders, following increases in methylmercury levels (37). Davidson et al. (2000) found that male, but not female, responses in neurological tests increased with methylmercury exposure, which is the opposite of the expected results, however, numerous unexamined variables were identified, which could have had influences on the results of the tests (31). Holmes et al. (2003) identified a link between mercury exposure and autism in children. Higher mercury levels in the hair were found to be associated with milder autistic symptoms (61). Perhaps because those children with milder symptoms were more able to excrete the mercury through their hair, before too much damage occurred. There was a greater number of females showing milder autistic symptoms, and a greater number of males showing severe autistic symptoms (61). From the evidence put forward here, there is a definite implication of a greater susceptibility for males than females to the neurotoxic effects of methylmercury exposure. There is an increased risk of neurotoxicity for children of women with increased levels of mercury in the hair (61). Hair mercury levels in subjects themselves, following equal exposure between the sexes, has been observed on numerous occasions as being lower in males than females, when associated with neurological problems (37, 61, 62). It may be that females have a better ability to excrete mercury through the hair than males, so less is present in body tissues. Lead Lead has long been known as a neurotoxicant, and its widespread release into the environment over the years has resulted in many neurological problems, mainly linked to learning difficulties (17), that have been well studied and characterised (3). Lead toxicity is thought to occur mainly in the hippocampus, cerebellum, and prefrontal cerebral cortex and again, it is thought that children, with their NS still developing, are at greatest risk to the neurotoxic insults of lead (7), so the majority of reports found here have been carried out in children. The elimination of lead from many environmental sources, such as motor vehicle petrol, and paints, has seen a decline in the amount of toxic lead exposure (7). However, it is still a problem in many areas, for example those homes where lead paint has been used in decoration (17). There are a number of studies that have reported a difference in cognitive impairments between male and female children. Tests carried out on school children, in South America, the UK and USA (38, 63-66), all identify a larger correlation between lead levels in the blood and poor cognitive ability in males than in females, while Wasserman et al. (1998) state that mothers reported behavioural problems with male children exposed to lead, more often than with exposed female children (67). An assessment of behavioural problems associated with lead exposure in American children (68) and an assessment of intelligence of children following lead exposure in Port Pirie (69), identified no difference between males and females in the results of their tests, while an assessment of the capabilities of children in school, and association with lead exposure (70), along with another investigation of child IQ by Needleman et al. (71), observed results to suggest females were more susceptible to lead neurotoxicity than male subjects, as they appeared to have greater prevalence of learning difficulties associated with lead. So, there appears to be a significant amount of evidence implying a gender difference in neurotoxicity associated with lead exposure. The majority of reports imply an increased susceptibility for males; however it is important for groups to look at sex differences in future studies, in order to ascertain conclusive results. This evidence also provides a need for investigation of sex differences in effects of lead exposure in adults. Manganese Manganese is another commonly used metal that can cause a toxic effect the NS upon exposure (20, 29, 40, 46, 47). There is a risk of manganese toxicity in various professions, in particular, welding (29, 46), but also through drinking or washing in water containing extraordinarily high levels of manganese (20, 40). There are a large number of reports confirming the neurotoxicity of manganese (20). Investigations have shown decreased intellectual ability in children over-exposed to manganese (40), and mood disturbances in men exposed occupationally (e.g. welders, factory workers.) (29, 40, 46, 47). In children, a report into an association between hair manganese levels and prevalence of hyperactivity, found that while there was a higher amount of manganese present in girls than boys, no difference was found between the sexes in assessment of neurological behaviour tests (72). Perhaps female brains are better able to cope with a higher amount of manganese. In adults, Dietz et al. (2001) found that a relationship between levels of manganese exposure and its effect on the Globus Pallidus area of the brain was seen only in men. These investigators give the reason that female workers have lower blood concentrations of manganese, and have a lower cumulative exposure index (73). However, they do not state whether there was a difference in actual exposure between sexes. If the exposure levels were the same, this could be an indication of increased susceptibility to males. In another study, results of neurological tests following manganese exposure were poorer for men than for women (74). As the majority of studies on manganese actually exclude females from results, or do not give separate results for each sex, it is difficult to make any definite assumptions about gender differences in neurotoxicity susceptibility. Implications from the three studies above provide a suggestion of a sex differences in manganese toxicity, with a greater effect within males. However, in future studies, where possible, females should be included, and the results analysed separately, in order to establish conclusive evidence for sex differences in neurotoxicity to manganese. Solvents There is a vast array of solvents that are used in many different industries and work places, meaning daily exposure for many different workers, including hairdressers, laboratory workers, painters, dry cleaners, and carpet layers, among others (33, 75-78). Due to the composition of solvents, they are particularly dangerous to the tissues of the NS. They are lipophillic compounds, and therefore have strong affinity for tissues rich in lipids, including the brain (33, 79). It is thought that psychomotor performance is the most common deficit (51) of solvent exposure, and prolonged exposure can cause permanent damage (15). Other symptoms include anxiety, insomnia, irritability, memory loss, fatigue and seizures (15, 33, 75). Solvent substances most often consist of a mixture of different chemicals, which can affect different regions of the brain. This can result in difficulties determining the toxic effects of a particular chemical (9). There have been many studies published that report clear association between solvent exposure and neurological deficits. Nelson et al. (1994) report that solvent exposure in workers at an automobile assembly plant, correlates with increased neurological disease, and, noticed in particular, an association with increased prevalence of a condition closely resembling MS (52). Cavalleri et al. (1994) obtained results to indicate deterioration of colour vision in factory workers following perchloroethylene exposure, even at low levels (53), and Boor et al. (1977) confirm a damaging effect of toluene on the CNS (54), a chemical that is also known to effect CNS development prenatally (3). Alcohol (Ethanol) is a major environmental solvent, although exposure rarely occurs occupationally, and it is most often taken in voluntarily (3). Hommer et al. (2001) studied the brain volumes of alcoholic and non-alcoholic men and women, and found that alcoholics had a much smaller volume of grey matter than non-alcoholics. This difference was found to be much more significant in females than males, suggesting an increased susceptibility of females to neurotoxic effects of alcoholism (34). In contrast, Pfefferbaum et al. (2001), in the same journal publication, indicated that the results of their study into alcohol effects on brain structure, show larger cortical sulci and lateral and third ventricles found in the alcoholics compared to non-alcoholics, which was a much greater and more significant difference in male subjects than female subjects. They also note that female brains show quicker and more effective recovery than those of males during abstinence (35). Jacobson (1986) ca rried out a study examining the brains of male and female alcoholics compared to non-alcoholic controls. It was noticed that the appearance of the brains on a CT scan was different between alcoholics and controls. Also observed was the fact that females appear more susceptible to structural changes in the brain following chronic alcohol intake, but are much more effective at recovering following cessation of intake, and the recovery occurs much quicker (80). Taking these 3 reports into consideration, there may be a difference in susceptibility of particular brain areas in males and females; however, females consistently recover more quickly from damage than males, indicating perhaps, a decreased susceptibility to long term damage. Neurophysiological deficits have also been reported in numerous studies of children exposed to alcohol pre-natally (81-83). However, few have noted results separately for male and female children. Nanson and Hiscock (1990) observed that female Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) children appear to have a higher IQ than males with FAS (83). As mentioned above, the majority of studies into other solvents, such as toluene, trichloroethene, n-hexane, chlorinated solvents (84), and solvent mixtures (49, 50, 76, 78, 85) in the workplace, report an obvious detrimental effect on the CNS, PNS, or both, following exposure. However, the majority included only men in the reports, or male and female results were analysed together. Again, it has been observed that the developing NS is especially susceptible to the neurotoxic effects of solvents, due to their high affinities for the brains lipid tissues (33, 79), and the BBB not being fully formed (7). Laslo-Baker et al. (2004) and Till et al. (2001) carried out studies on organic solvent exposure in pregnant women, taken in accidentally from occupational exposure, and the effects on neurodevelopment of their offspring. Both groups confirmed that children exposed pre-natally had poorer cognitive functioning than those not exposed, with lower results in neurological tests (75, 86). Again, no distinction was made between results for female and male children. Considering the obvious effects of solvents, including alcohol and toluene, on the NS, and the observations of sex differences from other neurotoxins, and the implications of sex differences in effects of alcohol mentioned here, it should be suggested that future studies automatically investigate male and female results separately, and allow for observation of any differences in results. Pesticides The term pesticides encompasses a wide range of chemicals, commonly used within a wide range of industries, particularly agriculture (87, 88). Included are the sub-groups; organophosphates, organochlorines, fumigants, and herbicides, all of which act to damage the NS of an organism, either directly, or via alteration of the cellular mechanisms that support it (87). Pesticides cause concern for human health as they are extremely widely used, and so readily released into the environment (88). It has been known for a long time that exposure to certain levels of these chemicals will adversely affect the human NS, as well as those organisms they are designed against (87, 88). Indeed, numerous studies have linked exposure to various pesticides with a number of neurological disorders, including Parkinsons disease (87, 89). In a similar situation to that for metals and solvents, there are many publications from groups investigating the effects of pesticide exposure on the human Nervous System, using an array of cognitive and neurobehavioural tests, with almost every study confirming the presence of some form of Neurotoxicity in subjects exposed to a range of doses. The following reports have identified separate results for neurological effects of pesticide exposure on male and female subjects, and an apparent greater effect on males. A report investigating the influence on the onset of Parkinsons and Alzheimers Diseases in elderly people living in the south of France, where pesticides are used daily in vineyards, noted a significant association between these disorders and pesticide exposure, in males only (90), suggesting a potentially increased susceptibility to males. Stallones et al. (2002) acknowledge males being at increased risk of developing neurological problems related to pesticide exposure than females, in an investigation into farmers, and their families in Colorado, USA (91), with the percentage of illnesses caused by exposure to pesticides almost three times greater in males. An assessment of neurobehavioural activity of Hispanic agricultural workers (92) identified a significant difference between the genders on results for 2 out of 10 tests, with females scoring lower than males. In the remaining tests, no significant differences were found between the sexes, although all exposed subjects faired worse than control, non-exposed (92). Similarly, pesticide-exposed Ecuadorians achieved lower outcomes in neurobehavioural tasks set by Cole et al. than did non-rural, unexposed Ecuadorians, and females were found to respond better in one task, with no significant difference between genders in others (93, 94). Guillette et al. (1998), carried out an assessment of Preschool children in Mexico, exposed to pesticides through living in close proximity of farm land. They identified a significant difference between those exposed and those living further away from the farm lands, with females performing better than males in several of the neurological tests (95). It appears that when there is a gender difference observed in the neurotoxic effects of pesticides, females tend to fair better than males, implying an increased susceptibility of males to the influences of pesticides on the NS. As it is more commonly males that are in the closest proximity to pesticides, within farming industries in particular, this could have some influence on this hypothesis. However, as the differences are also apparent in male and female children, with equal exposure, it does indicate a greater risk for males. The finding that there was only a significant difference in some tests may indicate an increased susceptibility of some brain areas in males over others, which correlates with results of studies of alcohol and tobacco smoke (below). Other Sources of Environmental Neurotoxicity Tobacco Smoke The chemicals contained in tobacco smoke, particularly nicotine, are now known to cause a variety of neurological problems, in addition to their other effects, including behavioural and cognitive problems during development, tremor, and an increased risk of stroke, from both smoking directly, and through passive smoke; inhalation or exposure prenatally (96-100). Various groups investigating toxicity caused by intake of tobacco smoke have described minor sex difference in the neurological outcome. Louis (2007) reports that, when looking into hand tremor as an outcome of tobacco smoking, the difference in score between smokers and non-smokers is greater in women than in men, which would indicate more of a susceptibility to women, rather than men (96). Jacobsen et al. (2007) investigated auditory and visual attention in adolescent smokers and non-smokers, with and without prenatal exposure to tobacco (101). They observed that different areas of the brain are apparently affected differently in male and female subjects exposed to tobacco smoke. In females, both auditory and visual attentions appear equally vulnerable, performing slightly more poorly in visual tests than males, while in males, auditory attention seems significantly more affected than visual attention, and in this auditory test, males performed substantially worse than females (101). The results of this investigation, put together with those from the Louis (2007) report, point towards sex-specific variation

Exploratory Paper On Political Ideology History Essay

Exploratory Paper On Political Ideology History Essay Political ideology is defined as a set of ideals and principles created for social order. Thus, after much consideration and deliberation, I chose to work on Political Ideology. Politics appeals to me because I have been intrigued by how it can inspire the masses with powerful rhetorics by charismatic personalities. President Barack Obama is a political leader whom I greatly admire for his oratory eloquence displayed during his maiden speeches in the U.S. Presidential Elections 2008. I was captivated by his Yes We Can! speech which moves the crowd to disperse all doubts about their future and believing that America will succeed under his leadership. Marxism-Leninism and Maoism are communism by nature but takes on a different form to cater to the circumstances in their respective countries, Russia and China. Marxism-Leninism is a political ideology that is based on Valdimir Lenins writing on the ideas of Karl Marx. Marxism advocates socialism while being heavily critical on capitalism which he believes is the dictatorship of the bourgeoisie, which means a society run by the upper echelons of society to their own benefit. His idea of socialism is that the society will be run by the working class known as the dictatorship of the proletariat. Marxs ideas were heavily influenced by the class struggle in society. One significant event that epitomises Marxism-Leninism ideology would be the 1917 October revolution in Petrograd, currently known as St. Petersburg. Valdimir Lenin was the leader of the Bolshevik (communist) Party that toppled the Russian Provisional government and created a new form of Russia called Soviet Russia which borrowed Marxism ideologies along with it. The Bolshevik won over the support of the majority of the workers and soldiers because of the repressive and autocratic ruling by the imperialist Tsar which resulted in declining economic and social conditions. The working class was unhappy with long working hours, overcrowded housing problems with poor sanitary control, low wages which was made worst by increases in cost of living due to Russias involvement in World War one at that time. Thus Lenin-led Bolshevik appealed to the masses and faced little resistance when they staged a coup, occupying government buildings and strategic points. In China, Maoism is a political ideology that straddles along the Marxism-Leninist line. Peasants and farming forms the fundamental and building blocks of a socialist society. The difference between Lenins Russia and Maos China is dictatorship of the working class while another is the dictatorship of the peasants. Mao Zedong rise to the top of the Chinese Communist Party was nothing short of spectacular. He was a founding member of the Chinese Communist Party in 1921 and was actively involved in spreading Marxist ideas to the peasants in his hometown of Hunan Province. The most significant event in the history of communist China is The Long March in 1934-1935. During the Zunyi conference, Zhou Enlai was ousted as the Chief Political Officer of the party while Mao Zedong was elected Chairman of the Politburo with backings from the military leaders and he has never relinquished his position since. Mao Zedong was credited for unifying China as a Peoples Republic and away from imperialism (Qing Dynasty) and feudalism (War-Lords). Also, the Long March gave the Chinese Communist Party the reputation that they are willing to endure hardship for the people and to formulate policies on land reform that would reduce the plight of Chinese peasants thus gaining wide support from the peasants. Another difference from Marxism-Leninism is the deep belief that man can prevail in harsh conditions and achieved things through strong willpower. He personally pushed through this ideology during the Great Leap Forward (1958-1960) and the Cultural Revolution (1968-1976). Maoism ideologies can also be found in Peru and Nepal. Locally, Singapore also had brushes with communist in the past. The Barisan Socialis was a former left-wing political party formed in 1961 by former members of the PAP (Peoples Action Party) and led by Dr Lee Siew Choh and Lim Chin Siong. The party was accused by the PAP to be a communist front and deemed a threat to national security which resulted in many Barisan Socialis members arrested and imprisoned without trial during operation coldstore by the internal security department. Singapore, widely regarded as a democratic society, would be understandably not be tolerant of the Barisan Socialis, supposedly advocates of communism since that would be conflict of political ideologies. However, based on an extract below, I felt that it could be reasons of a partisan nature. In a recently declassified Colonial office papers, Baron Philip Moore, who was Deputy High Commissioner of Britain in Singapore from 1963 to 1965, was quoted as saying: He (Lee) went on to suggest that in order to avoid the Communists taking over, he would create a situation in which the UK Commissioner would be force to suspend the Constitution. This might be done either by the Singapore Government inviting a Russian trade mission to Singapore thus forcing a constitutional crisis, or by instigating riots and disorder, requiring the intervention of British troops. I did however, form the impression that he was quite certain he would lose a general election and was seriously toying with the thought of forcing British intervention in order to prevent his political enemies from forming a government. (CO 1030/1149 p.95, para 3) In history, after revolutions for a change in political ideology, there would be power struggle for leadership as can be seen in the Chinese Communist Party. Mao Zedong wiped out all that threatens his position as leader and started the Cultural Revolution. In the Soviet Union, after Lenins death, Joseph Stalin and Leon Trotsky fought for power to lead. In the end, Stalin ordered the assassination of Trotsky. The lesson to be learned from history is that power struggles for leadership happens before, during and after a revolution. Leaders clinging to power would use all means to consolidate their status by eliminating political rivals. It is no difference regardless of political ideologies.

Death Of A Salesman: Symbols :: essays research papers

Death of a Salesman: Symbols Many symbols are incorporated into the play "Death of a Sales man" and they in turn relate to both character and theme. The hose, tape recorder and the seeds are some of these symbols. The hose in Miller's drama directly relates to the theme of d eath. The hose is a line attached to the gas main in Willy's house which allows him to snif f the gas. This action can be seen as Willy's suicide wish, and escape from the realities of life. As seen in the loss of his job and his failure to succeed. The hose also represents grief and deception. For when Linda, Willy's wife, finds the hose, she is distraught over its in tended purpose. The deceptive nature of the hose is apparent when Willy is confronted about it by Biff his son and Willy denies its existence. A similar denial is also evident when Willy is confronted with the tape recorder in Howard's office. The tape recorder signifies the change in Willy's life throug h the advancement of technology. It also represents the end of Willy's career. This is brought about when Howard, Willy's boss and godson, shows the tape recorder to Willy and appe ars to be more interested in the sound and technology of the machine instead of Willy, who i s fighting for his job. Howard no longer need s Willy's services and without concern fires him. This , to Willy, was like, "eating the orange and throwing away the peel". However, Willy is partly to blame, as he does not accept change and wants to remain in the pas t. This is foreshadowed in the scene where Willy is left alone with the tape recorder and is unable to shut it off. Willy believes in using his old techniques and style to succeed. Nevertheless, in his job, it is not what you know, but it is who you know. Willy is not up to date with the business nor technology. Yet, Willy still has hope, and wishes to leave some fo rm of support behind for his family as illustrated in his planting of the seeds. Willy feels that he must leave something behind something for Biff. In Willy's imaginary world he wants Biff to be magnificent and he symbolically plants seeds in his garden. In spite of such an action he is doomed to fail. Willy sta rts planting the seeds at night, but at night there is no sun shining and this seems

The Giver Essay example -- Essays Papers

The Giver The Giver is about a boy named Jonas who lives in the future in an almost perfect community. Jonas is chosen to be the person who carries all the memories of the past, given to him by the giver. It is by Lois Lowry. There are many good and bad things in the Giver. Some good things are that hardly anyone gets hurt. When people do get hurt they take a pill and the pain goes right away. No one ever breaks bones or anything. There are no criminals, and there are no locks on any homes or buildings. Another good thing is that everyone knows who everyone else is and it’s a very small community with only a few hundred people. There are hardly ever any visitors from outside the community. Sometimes kids from other communities go play with the kids in the book’s community. All the people are provided with homes, jobs, and food. A bad thing about the giver’s community is release. When a person breaks a major rule, is too old, or isn’t right as a baby they get release d. Release is killing. In the book there are twins and the smaller one has to be released. His father turned and opened the cupboard. He took out a syringe and a small bottle. Very carefully he inserted the needle into the bottle and began to fill the syringe with a clear liquid. Jonas winced sympathetically. He had forgotten that newchildren had to get shots. He hated shots himself, though he knew they were necessary. To his surprise, his father began very carefully to direct the needle into the top of the newchild’s forehead, puncturing the place where the fragile skin pulsed. The newborn squirmed and wailed faintly â€Å"Why’s he-â€Å" â€Å"Shhh,† The giver said sharply. His father was talking, and Jonas realized that he was hearing the answer to the question he had started to ask. Still in the special voice, his father was saying, â€Å"I know, I know. It hurts, little guy. But I have to use a vein, and the veins in your arm are still too teeny-weeny.â €  He pushed the plunger very slowly, injecting the liquid into the scalp vein until the syringe was empty. â€Å"All done. ! That wasn’t so bad, was it?† Jonas heard his father say cheerfully. He turned aside and dropped the syringe into a waste receptacle. Now he cleans him up and makes him comfy, Jonas said to himself, aware that the giver didn’t want to talk during the little ceremony. As he continued to watch, the newchild, no longer crying, moved his arms and le... ...n away from the town to Elsewhere. The memories she received became lost in the town. The community has always depended on the receiver to hold their memories for them. The Giver and Jonas made a plan to leave town. Jonas is supposed to go to Elsewhere. In Elsewhere the town is completely different from the town Jonas came from. When Jonas get to Elsewhere, it means that the community has to bear the burden themselves that Jonas was holding. Jonas went to Elsewhere with a baby named Gabriel. They went through the cold and were starving but finally in the end made it to Elsewhere. The Giver had to stay to help the people cope with the memories they would receive. I agree with what Jonas did. People should be able to make their own decisions and live life the way they want to Jonas was starting to see the fighting of the wars, he didn't really liked that memory. Another memory that impacted me was when Joneas was in the top of the hill and saw, and felt the fresh snow and when he got into the slide and went of the snow, but then after he maked the planed to live and tried to make it, but after he left home he took Gabriel to go with him, but unfortionaly they both died in the way.

America’s Crossroads

The fifty year span between 1870 and 1920 in United States history found our great, growing nation struggling with many economic, racial and social crisis. Rules were made and broken. Walls were built and torn down. Lines were drawn and crossed. With a huge cultural chasm yawning out across an invisible landscape, rocked on its foundations by a civil war, the United States of America stood at a crossroads, It was now entering uncharted territory. Would it let the torrent of differences and alienation between itself and its vanquished other half divide the nation forever? Or would it have the fortitude, forbearance, and mercy to begin the heart-rending task of putting the pieces back together again and truly becoming â€Å"one nation, under God, indivisible, with liberty and justice for all†? Though emotionally exhausted from its assuredly un-civil war, and except for the decimated South, the nations economic health was excellent. New opportunities abounded for the young and enterprising in the large cities that were growing ever larger thanks to the flood of immigrants searching for the American dream. And in this new post-Civil War era standards remained static in many areas, were raised in others, and certainly, most glaringly in the political-economic arena, fell in others. Great wealth, power, and prosperity accumulated quickly after the Civil War, and everyone wanted a hand in it. However, because standards were so lax in the political-economic area, a preoccupation with material and monetary gain increased. Men whose principal claim to this newfound wealth and power (characteristics certainly envied) was through corruption and ruthlessness. A good example of one of these men was â€Å"†¦ John D. Rockefeller in oil. He saw a marketplace of huge integrated companies, cooperating to avoid competition. The virtue of this new form of production, for Rockefeller, was its efficiency. Then he [Rockefeller] set out to eliminate competition: they could sell out to him at his price: they could become his agents; or they could be destroyed† (261 Carol Noble). Not just another term for â€Å"survival of the fittest†, efficiency and being efficient would revolutionize the industrial age, its people, and its culture. The humming and expanding continent, for all its corruption and crudities, embodied progress, and nothing would stand in its way. Rockefeller would go on to speak prophetically about the social changes to come: â€Å"The day of combination is here to stay. Individualism has gone, never to return† (261 Carol Noble). As individualism was being ground up and replaced under the heels of industrialism, another â€Å"-ism†, racism, and second-class citizenship towards immigrants, blacks, and anyone with a different religion, remained unchanged. People from all walks of life that had come to the land of opportunity were increasingly forced into working alongside one another. â€Å"Corporate leaders well understood and the exploited the ethnic groups within the labor force† (265 Carol Noble). Pitting blacks against whites, whites against whites, Swedes against Slovaks, and Catholics against Jews, the fat cat's just sat back and laughed. â€Å"They deliberately worked to deepen resentment between them† (265 Carol Noble). This, to me, is a very repulsive side to the new industrial age and its efficiency. These so-called â€Å"leaders† exploited many honest, hardworking people because of their ethnicity, low-class, and ignorance. Spurred on by their greed, their bosses greed, and greedy human nature in general. Treating people like they were animals in search of the almighty buck. To a small degree in their defense, America had never been here before. It never had industries, corporations, and things of this nature. It now had large railroads connecting the nation to make â€Å"†¦ it possible for regional specialization to be linked to the national economy† (260 Carol Noble). This was all new and people took advantage of it like hogs to slop. No discipline, no planning or thinking ahead. It was all going to last forever is what they probably thought. However, one people, one race, had been here before. Subjected to unheard of treatment, domination, and abuse for the past four hundred and some odd years, African-Americans did not know what to do with their new found freedom. â€Å"This child race had received total guidance from the whites during the period of slavery† (252 Carol Noble). Though they were not considered slaves anymore, they might as well have been. Ostracized to a ridiculous extent in almost every conceivable area, blacks were still hated by southern whites like Adolph Hitler hated the Jews. â€Å"This crusading prejudice produced rigid forms of social segregation between 1890 and 1910† (254 Carol Noble). Many people thought segregation would work just fine. Many others did not. Among them were the ones who could actually do something about it †¦ the â€Å"leaders†. Many of them â€Å"†¦ advocated the deportation of blacks, [while] other northern leaders listened to more extreme proposals, such as â€Å"to emasculate the entire Negroe race† (255 Carol Noble). These prejudice men would roll over in their graves at the progress blacks would go on to make by the latter half of the twentieth century versus the late nineteenth century. Blacks were not going to be held down m, and the squashing of the individual who, in the words of Andrew Carnegie, didn't have â€Å"the special talent required† to create and keep capitol (46 Kammen). A lot of these so-called â€Å"untalented† people were of course of the working class and the new efficiency invading the culture had them reeling. On top of all the myriad of changes and unstableness in the workplace was a new type of management by Frederick W. Taylor. â€Å"‘Taylorism' became an international byword for social control and for programs designed to make men function like machines† (87 Kammen). Of course men are not like machines and so cannot function like them. Standards were not being raised in this critical backbone area of industry due to â€Å"Taylorism†, and labor America voiced it with â€Å"†¦ growing labor unrest and major strikes, especially in 1911-12† (87 Kammen). Workers, it turned out, had brains and wanted to use them. Many of the people that were working at the turn of the twentieth century were woman, as the new efficiency permeating society pushed them out of the home and into the work force. They also campaigned against inequality and male double-standards. Tired of staying at home anyway, women were becoming more outspoken and independent. â€Å"Increasing numbers of young women attended colleges, choosing to become teachers, librarians, and social workers† (242 Carol Noble). Chafing under restraint, women flexed their way into public life and changed the way they were viewed. In summary, change happens in all areas of life and at all times of life. It establishes itself as unpredictable, unreliable, maddening. Like the butterfly theory of flapping its wings in Tokyo and creating a rainstorm in Central Park, change is the weather of history. One thing influences another and another, producing good and bad. In life, human nature is the constant; it is what affects change.

Balancing Penn Foster Studies with Work and Family Demands Essay

My name is Julia and I am in my early twenties, and I would have never have imagined that I would one day be going back to school to earn my college degree. My mother and fiancà © encouraged me to pursue it, because of my love of art and talking to people, marketing and public relations and that it would be very expensive since I wanted to go to college in America but could not afford it at the time. They were very supportive from the start; my fiancà © assisting me in writing notes on flash cards and giving me pop quizzes and my mom reminding me to complete homework assignments when I was busy doing household chores. To me, my life was going great as I advanced further toward my future goals. Everything that glitters isn’t gold, I’ve learnt. My job as a Procurement Assistant became too demanding since the Procurement Manager left for a much better paying job. So I had to play both roles of Procurement Manager and Procurement Assistant as the directors hadn’t f ound a replacement yet and brought home extra work from the office. This left me no time for my studies. Fortunately my directors saw how stressed out I was with performing the duties of two positions and promoted me to Procurement Manager and had gotten me a competent and understanding Procurement Assistant who I trained to take over my workload when I was completing my coursework or studying for examinations so that my evenings were free. As if work wasn’t enough, I had to deal with my family and my fiancà ©. In the evenings, I had to do the household chores because my mother was taking care of my sickly grandmother and I had to run to do groceries, pay the bills and ensure my baby brother did his homework assignments and take him up in his revision as it was close to exams. Plus I had to cook dinner and since my step-father was away at his security job. If that weren’t enough, my fiancà © and I bought a small condominium after I went to oversee the work being done to by the night workmen because my fiancà © was in the Coast Guard and was working the whole week on patrol. When I returned home I was mentally and physically exhausted. I tried to study but it was no use. With my mother gone and my stepfather away at his job, my baby brother was quite the handful. Eventually when I had enough, I spoke to my parents about the household chores and they agreed that I was doing a lot  and decided that my mother would take my baby brother with her to my grandmother’s; even talked her into interviewing nurses so she can handle purchasing the groceries and paying the bills. My stepfather would step in to see to the household chores before going to work. In the little spare time I had to myself, I tried my best to complete all coursework required and tried to study for an upcoming exam. The day came when I thought myself to be well prepared for the exam and decided to take it. However, my fiancà © called me and said he was unable oversee the work that was being done that evening; so I took my laptop computer over to our condo and logged on. While I was mid-way through the exam, one of the workmen called me asking that I come and review a part of the house plan. While doing so, one of the workmen, being idle, fiddled with my laptop causing my exam to be submitted and when I discovered I had failed the exam, I had literally broke down. I was trying my best to ensure that I could cope with everything that was going on in my life but this was my limit. What was I trying to accomplish here? Two weeks, after that disastrous event, I eventually calmed down and called the school concerning my exam. Fortunately, they understood my situation and told me that I should have locked my computer when leaving it unattended and I was able to retake the exam and I passed with a good grade. I sat down with my fiancà © and told him what happened and he immediately replaced the workmen with a more responsible and sensible group of work men and even gotten his brother to oversee the work being done to our condo. My fiancà © was given annual leave so he is at home for a month and he is assisting me with my studies as before. Now that I had a plan set in motion that would help ease my stress and give a peace of mind; I think that I would be able to accomplish my goal of earning my degree in Business Management. My advice to students and persons who are considering returning to school to continue their education at the tertiary level is that when you have responsibilities that need to be taken care of you will need to find a way to make everything work together; sit with your parent or significant other and create a weekly planner and jot down the responsibilities that you are capable of handling and you are not capable of; this way you will not be stressed out. Also there are events that we are unprepared that will take place in life such as a loved one falling ill with a terminal disease or an accident. You will need to take extra care how you are to deal with these  kinds of situation. Always remember this is one of your goals to attain your degree and don’t let anyone or anything get in the way of your dreams!