Amos and Hosea Essay

Amos was a Judean who believed he was commissioned by Yahweh to address his words to Israel, However Hosea was a native Israelite. With these two men was the custom of recording oracles which appear to have begun, for if the words of their prophetic predecessors were preserved in a written form, then they would have long since been lost to us all. Within a few years, prophets sharing similar concerns with Amos and Hosea began to be active in Judah and their words too, were preserved. II Kings 15 and Amos 1-9 Amos stood in judgment of moral and ethical evil but, unlike them, he did not limit himself to single issues or to individual situations, but dealt with the decline of Yahwism and human behavior in all levels of society. Cities he mentions), patterns of cause and effect (3:3 ff.), and Israelite cult practices. His vivid imagery, drawn from nature, suggests an intelligent observer capable of relating his insights and experiences in powerful terminology. Perhaps the very simplicity of his life caused him to be shocked at the extravagances of the rich and the terrible poverty and helplessness of those who were the prey of the powerful. The luxury of summer and winter palaces as opposed to the hovels of the poor, the greedy demand of the very rich contrasted with the cry for justice and equity of the underprivileged drove him to harsh pronouncements against powerful, smug, content men and women, priests and king. The thrust of Amos’ condemnation is against the division of life into compartments. He argues for unity. What a man does in the market place, in the Court of law or, in his dealings with others cannot be walled off from worship. Yahweh is a God of all people; therefore the dealings of man with man are directly related to the dealings of God with man. His is a cry for the recognition of man’s moral responsibility before God. â€Å"But let justice roll down like waters and righteousness like an Overflowing stream.† Amos 5:24 AMOS’ RELIGIOUS CONCEPTS Amos’ beliefs concerning Yahweh and divine-human relationships were similar. Yahweh the creator, the â€Å"God of hosts† Amos never speaks of Yahweh as â€Å"God of Israel†), or possessed power over nature and nations. Despite the unrealistic emphasis, Yahweh’s particular concern was Israel, the chosen or  elected people, Amos emphasized Yahweh’s action in history in bringing the Hebrews to nationhood and greatness, and pointed out that the continuance of power and security rested in Yahweh.

Compare two music promos

‘Creating a memorable music video is much like growing an unusual moustache. It takes patience and nerve. During the early planning stages it may be difficult to perceive exactly what the finished ‘tache' will look like. The growing period may be arduous, drawn out. The moustache's grower may be tempted by the easy clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s of fashion to compromise their original design. But if he or she stays the course, remaining true to their vision, they will doubtless create something unique. While the finished ‘moustache' may not be to everybody's taste, it will stand out. It will entertain. It will provoke. It will inspire: a true original amid a tangled forest of more conventional styles.' Music video production company ‘ Colonel Blimp' Essay title: Compare and contrast two music videos from two different genres. The two videos I am going to compare are; a new and up incoming artist from London's underground scene, Kano with the video for ‘Ps and Qs' an underground a anthem that marks the mainstream break – through for grime and UK hip hop and a very comical band Tenacious D with the video for ‘WounderBoy', who's main singer and founder of the band is a well known and respectable comedian – Jack Black. The band who are responsible for songs such as ‘Fu*k Her Gently' like to be seen as funny and not to be taken to seriously. Such a contrast between the band and the artist it is quite obvious that both videos are not going to be alike and great for comparing and contrasting. Kano's ‘Ps and Qs' promo is directed by Alistair Siddons, an up incoming director who works for the production company Colonel Blimp. He is well known in his chosen genre of music – underground UK grime and hip hop and has directed videos for highly respected bands and artists in that scene, such as ‘The Streets', ‘Roots Manuva' and ‘Crazy Titch'. He tends to work with artists on a low budget although he does still continue to work with his artists once they have become more popular and have a larger budget. He is becoming increasingly well known and has recently won four awards for his work at this year's Underground Music Awards. Tenacious D decided to use Spike Jonze, a well respected film and music video director, largely credited for his work in Blockbuster films ‘Being John Malkovich' and ‘Adaptation'. However Jonze also remains a pioneer in the world of music videos, and for many years has been best known as an award – winning music video, short film and commercial director. One of his most famous promo' s being ‘Fatboy Slim's' ‘Praise You', in which Jonze stars as himself. Unlike Siddons, Jonze does not have preferable genre in which the videos he directs and has directed for a wide variety of musical styles and genres, from Hip Hop's Notorious B.I.G to digital, electro pop band Daft Punk. ‘Ps and Qs' establishing shot is at a tilted, low angle looking up at high – rise city building, which has a lot of glass and reflection from street lamps, we can see that it is at night. There is fast, snappy editing that goes with the songs digitally modified beats and we can see more images of London and local streets that are graffitied and littered. This adds to the mise – en – scene of the video and gives an impression and feel of urban decay. Just before the lyrics start we can see Kano walk out from the darkness of an alley and into the light from a street lamp. He walks towards the camera and begins to rap (as though he is talking) to us. The camera begins to track backwards with Kano walking forward to us; Kano appears to be moving with the camera, as though he is on the tripod. Tenacious D's video opens as though it were a film, with credits informing whom the director and the band is, the background is of the nights sky and we can see that it is snowing. The establishing shot is of tall snow mountains and a forest, the camera moves quickly into the forest and we can see the band's main singer Jack Black sat on a log. As the lyrics begin Jack starts to sing dramatically but serious – already we can sense intertextual reference to the world – famous film, ‘Lord Of The Rings'. Editing is slow and typical of a fantasy/adventure film, camera shots are also very filmic e.g. extreme close – up's of Jack Black, and large bird's eye view shots, that quickly sweep over scenery and closely focus on characters. I also feel that the video has been shot in double time or time and a half to create a slow motion feel. As Kano's promo continues, we see more tall building projects, estates and back streets. Through – out the video Kano appears to be on his own travelling through out London. The film seems to have a dark green wash over it as the video appears to be off – coloured and darker than it should be, this also adds to the mise – en – scene of the promo and creates a atmosphere that is not overtly scary but menacing. The places that Kano travels through appear to be slightly threatening and the viewers find themselves relieving that they are not walking through these places on their P's! (On their own). The viewer can see that this video is on a lower budget compared to Tenacious D's WonderBoy' and does not have such graphic storyline or the need for great acting skills, however Kano's lyrical content mixed with clever camera and editing tricks make up for the lack of story – boarding. Tenacious D's promo develops a story – line that the viewer can follow through the bands actions, their impressive acting skills and the song's lyrics, which sing about ‘WonderBoy' and his evil archenemy – Young nasty man. Through out the video we see ‘WonderBoy' (played by Jack Black) sat in the forest reciting lyrics, he begins to move as he sings and the camera tracks behind him, as WonderBoy dramatically turns around, we see his evil competitor, Young nasty man (played by the band's other member Kyle Glass). Shots are slow and dramatic with a lot of use of ‘fade editing'. During the song we approach a verse that is spoken (and shouted!) by Black, the promo at this verse fades into a picturesque view of Snow Mountains with Black and Glass's faces faded on top of the picture. This is a technique used in ‘The Lord Of The Ring' films and is usually used to show what the character is thinking about or the scene that he is creating with words. We see extravagant sets of icy snow deserts and the camera tracks behind Black on what seems to be a quest. Filming is slow and dreamy. The whole promo only actually uses 92 different camera shots most of which are faded into each other, compared to Kano's ‘P's and Q's' which use's a mass of 156 different camera shots which are fast, snappy and edgy (and maybe dangerous for someone who has epilepsy). In conclusion both promos are incredibly unique and directed to the highest standards, none better than the other but just of remarkably different genres and styles. Kano's promo pushes boundaries and throws out stereo – typical clichà ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½s of American, gangster Hip Hop with jewellery, woman and drugs. It too illustrates the wider shift in the way Garage and Grime music is incrementally developing from disposable dance floor music into a far deeper and infinitely more subtle medium capable of expressing the turbulent inner life of Britain's excluded urban underclass – a demographic discovering their own identity and voice through microphones, cheap computer technology and the sawn-of idiom of pirate music. In turn Tenacious D's ‘WonderBoy' offers amazing direction from Jonze and incredible theatrical performances from Black and Glass. A comical, yet serious parody lampooning a contemporary media phenomenon – ‘The Lord Of The Rings' and at the same time tells a humorous tale of how the band was started. Many critics and viewers found ‘The Lord Of The Rings' to worthy and pompous yet Tenacious D and Spike Jonze saw this opportunity to successfully mock it.

Poor Patient Care due to Nursing Shortage Leading to Professional, Research Paper

Poor Patient Care due to Nursing Shortage Leading to Professional, Ethical and Legal Issues - Research Paper Example This research will begin with the statement that in the healthcare setting, nurses are the important players in nourishing and rehabilitating an unhealthy, injured, diseased individual back to a normal and healthy individual, thereby enabling him/her to live a happy and successful life. The roles and duties of a nurse have also evolved with the changing face of nursing. Rather than becoming few, they have become many, with nurses increasingly taking up certain duties that were previously left to society. The development of nursing has also seen nurses evolve from general practitioners to highly specialized professionals, with areas of practice ranging from geriatric nursing to pediatric nursing. This has resulted in better patient care and higher patient survival rates. With the rapid development of human society and increasing health needs, this specialization across the nursing profession is bound to increase even more. However, there is another side to the above scenario. That is, due to the number of factors, there is sizable nursing shortage throughout the world including in the UK, and that is leading to poor patient care. Due to this shortage of nurses in healthcare settings, patients are put in a high risk condition, as they are not being given expected as well as adequate care leading to professional, ethical and legal issues Identification of the legal, professional and ethical issues A nurse will only â€Å"provide a structure of caring that can ultimately create an environment where†¦ a patient can begin a transition from victim to survivor† (Johnston 2006). Thus, if the shortage of nurses accentuates, the ‘structure’ will collapse, leading to a lot of trouble and risks. Shortage of nurses is being witnessed in many UK hospitals in the past few years, thereby placing NHS in a peril state. A shortage is happening because many hospitals have placed a freeze on the recruitment of new nurses and also axing currently functioning nurses as well. â€Å"Many hospitals have been axing nursing posts or imposing recruitment freezes since 2005 and 2006, having racked up huge debts. Official figures show 5,964 nursing posts have been axed in the past two years. † (Borland 2013). Shortage of nursing staff has a major detrimental impact on the quality of service of the hospital which directly impacts its reputation as well as on the hospital’s overall capacity to service (Buerhaus et al. 2007). More than the hospital’s image, the valuable lives of people are at stake. People come to a healthcare setting in an already compromised state, with both their physical as well as mental health in a will be in a weakened state. That is, as people visit hospitals, when their physical body is malfunctioning, diseased and injured, their physical strength and also their mental morale will be at an all-time low. Fig 1: (Borland 2013). Considering their state, it is of crucial importance for the healthcare profe ssionals particularly nurses, as said above, to provide them with apt care and ‘nurse’ back to health. (Gosling and Mintzberg 2003). However, when there is the shortage of nurses, all the patients may not be given apt and equal care, also may not be given quick care or care in times of need, and even deficient care. When this happens, many worst-case scenarios arise. â€Å"Recent documents, including the infamous Francis Report, have exposed a catalog of failings in the NHS, where patients have been neglected, poorly observed and physically abused. Findings detailed how patients were left unwashed; unable to eat and drink due to lack of help, and overall poorly managed in their final hours of need.† (The City Times).  

Is love still there Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Is love still there - Essay Example For instance, they go to the extent of having random sex with people they do not even know. That is where we get even married people cheating on their spouses without even trying to think about what they had before. In this century, a lot of young people are interested in mostly what the other has financially. They have destroyed the sweet charter called love. No matter how hard John Legend and Bruno Mars try to sing to the youth, it just falls on deaf ears. Projects are formed all the time to try and reveal if love is still alive and well in the world, and how better the world can be if they share their love. Writers and love experts try and write books for folks to read just to spice up the act of love (Bruckner 2011: 90; Dutton & Onge 2011: 44). All I believe in when is in love; they almost feel ashamed that someone can be that important that without them one feels like nothing, one feels like no one can ever understand how much it hurts. One feels so hopeless, but nothing can sav e you, and when it is all over, and its gone one almost wishes to have that entire back, so that one can save on the good part. I think when it is all over it just comes it just comes back in flashes, and it is like a scope of memories that all comes back, and one feels like your partner is never coming back, part of you always knows that there is chances of a relationship not working out, but one chooses the feelings that come along with. The craziest part is when ones partner is gone, and you think that you will never feel the same again. You start thinking of what would have happened.

Film review Movie Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 10

Film - Movie Review Example The film also captivates through its application of irony as Raphael’s status changes from an arrogant successful salesperson to an oppressed loser (Iglesia). The film’s major characters are Raphael and Lourdes. These characters play a major role in the development of the story line besides aiding application of literacy styles, such as irony, in the film. Minor characters on the other hand include Antonio, who beat Raphael in a promotion opportunity, other sales women, the employing organization, and the passive criminal investigation system. These characters facilitate demonstration of Raphael and Lourdes’ character traits. The sales women for example elevate Raphael’s social power but undermine Lourdes (Iglesia). One of the added techniques to the film is flashback, applied towards the film’s end. The technique further illustrates the relationship between Raphael and Lourdes and therefore enriches the storyline

Economics (Micro And Macro) Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Economics (Micro And Macro) - Essay Example The BA’s main reason for participating in this alliance is the possibility to reduce the ticket prices on air transportation due to the bigger amount of profit. Despite the fact that anti-monopolistic committee allowed the partnership, the airline company Virgin Atlantic sets protests against it. The merge of two big companies will make them monopolists in their service sphere. As mentioned above the bigger profit allows the owners to provide better services, to have upgraded planes, to set lower prices on the tickets and what is even more important – to provide the better level of security. The company with average profits will be driven off the market. To fight this injustice they even applied the anti-advertising technique by putting the following message on their airplanes â€Å"No way to BA/AA. The headquarter of a new alliance will be located in London since the controlling interest belongs to BA. Analyzing this article it is necessary to point out several issues that are to be considered in details. The first notion is monopoly since the new alliance represents the monopolistic leader in Europe. Though at the same time considering the whole world where BA+AA will have the third place in volume of passengers transportation, it is necessary to point out that in the scale of the world competition we can observe the monopolistic competition. The second notion that is to be analyzed is merge and strategic alliance in order to identify the type that BA and AA has. In books on economics one can find the following definition of monopoly as: â€Å"If a certain firm is the only one that can produce a certain good, it has a monopoly in the market for that good (Samuelson & Marks, 2003). When studying monopoly in theory it is usually accepted that only one company operates in its industry - it produces and sells the whole volume of products. Though, in life monopoly is represented by a big company that controls the biggest part of

The Importance of Nursing Theory Research Paper

The Importance of Nursing Theory - Research Paper Example The Roy Adaptation model, a grand theory model, is significant in nursing theory for its pragmatic and logical considerations about real-life health environments and the human condition. This paper describes the importance of generalized nursing theory to the nursing profession and, using the Roy Adaptation Model as the appropriate guidance, this paper will describe how this model impacts patient care, the purpose of this particular model, and how this theory would view nursing leadership and education. The Roy Adaptation Model is one of the most viable models in nursing theory. The Importance and Validity of Nursing Theory Study Nursing theory provides a great deal of quantifiable and justified assumptions that assist in building an effective model of nursing practice to improve productivity, interpersonal relationship development between nurse, patient or organizational groups, and can assist in deciding a best practice model taking into consideration environment, biopsychosocial c haracteristics of the nurse, and patient needs. Unlike mathematical models that are often used in organizational science that consider proper utilization of distinct tangible resources, nursing theory is sensible and practical, recognizing the complexity of human behavior and various coping strategies that are integrated into a model of practice to understand the dynamics of relationships and actual patient care. Nursing theory, unlike other models, do not limit the scope of human knowledge to equation modeling or consider the role of the nurse practitioner as being autonomous of their emotional states. In a health environment where inherent emotional responses are going to surface in practice, and where patient emotional and rationalization capacities create adaptable situations, it would be unrealistic to assume that a health care organization could be structured effectively (or training delivered properly) without recognition of these variables in the cycle of nursing care. For t he aforementioned reasons, nursing theory is critical to improving the nursing profession and facilitating more effective care to patients. It identifies the potential hindrances or barriers to communication or group functioning so as to create a template by which to combat these situations. Such theoretical modeling also illustrates how one care or leadership function is inter-dependent on another in a health system, identifying redundancies that might occur in practice or opportunities to improve practice responses. Nursing theory, by drawing on real-life case studies or other supporting qualitative research, creates a knowledge base about legitimate, contemporary nursing requirements or human needs to assist in identifying more effective organizational systems or interpersonal relationship development. Examining the complexities of patient needs, as another relevant example through various studies, creates testable hypotheses about how to handle various emotional constructs in pa tients to deliver better care. Nursing theory can identify certain socio-demographics or ethnographic knowledge about patient personalities in identified cultural groups so that different strategies

The psycology of Love Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2250 words

The psycology of Love - Research Paper Example Nonetheless, even this basic concept takes in an extensive spectrum ranging from passion, intimate romantic love to the platonic love or the close, emotional non-sexual familial love that one may feel for a friend . Something about love that has been a subject of recurrent debate is its nature, although by determining what love is not, one can clarify various aspects. Frequently, love is contrasted with hate, the latter being the most extreme. All the same, when focusing on the contrast between an emotionally intimate and a sexual form of romantic attachment, the difference in consideration is between love and lust. Various Western authorities classify love into two main categories namely the narcissistic and the altruistic. In his work, exploring the definitions of love and evil through applied psychology, , who , defines love as a combination of simple narcissism and ‘the will to extend one's self with the aim of nurturing another's or one's own spiritual growth’ repre sents this view. He adds that by combining these, love is perceived to be an activity rather than a feeling. Different theories of love, according to researchers and psychologists exist. These theories explain love, emotional attachment and liking. Triangular Theory of Love Robert J. Sternberg developed the Triangular Theory of Love. Robert J. Sternberg developed the Triangular Theory of Love. He was a Tufts University’s psychologist and according to his theory, passion, commitment and intimacy are the three elements that encompass any instance of an interpersonal association. Passion refers to conditions of physiological and emotional arousal. It includes physical attraction and sexual arousal in addition to other types of strong emotional experiences. Passion is the most common love form and is evident in both infatuation as well as romantic love. Infatuation results when passion alone rules – it is an almost wanton physical desire. Commitment on the other hand invol ves a resolution to commit to love the other and endeavoring to uphold that love over time. It is based on the prospect that the relationship is permanent. Intimacy is defined as two people sharing their personal lives’ details and confidences, generally illustrated within romantic love affairs and friendships it involves emotional support closeness and caring. In all love forms, changing levels of all three of these components are supposedly evident (Reddy, 2011 and Cohen, 2011). Different types of love result from different combinations of passion, commitment and intimacy. For instance, a combination of intimacy and passion brings about passionate love whereas a combination of commitment and intimacy brings about compassionate love (Cherry, 2005). Cherry (2005) adds that according to Sternberg, in contrast to relationships based upon only one component, relationships built on two or more elements are more lasting. To describe a blend of commitment, passion, and intimacy, St ernberg (1986) uses the phrase consummate love. He suggests that this type of love is the most enduring and the strongest. However, it is not common. According to Sternberg (1986), ‘consummate love’ is an equal relationship with all the three elements. Generally, people strive after this ideal. All the other six love forms bring out one or two of the points predominating on the triangle. These can be categorized into complex or simple permutations –

Court Observation Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Court Observation - Essay Example In the year 1978, five boys were reported missing and were presumed dead. The suspects that were captured at the time, Lee Evans and his cousin, Philander Hampton could not be held due to the absence of credible evidence. However, as time went by, the court found something to link Lee with the murders of the five teens. The issue that arose during the case was the linking of Lee to all the murders (Henry, p. 20). Questions as to why he would do such an act were asked. The public was very interested in the closure of the case. To this day, the bodies of the teens have not been recovered. Families of the deceased are appealing to the accused to disclose the location of the bodies. This is to allow them to be at peace and have the ability to let go of the memory of their lost ones. Facts reveal that Lee Evans and his cousin led the teens into a vacant house, put them in a closet, poured gasoline and lit it. They then left. It is believed that the teens were forced to the abandoned house at gun point (Henry, p. 22). First, three were taken by Lee then two followed later. When asked the reason he was doing this by his cousin, Lee said it was payback since the boys had stolen his marijuana. The case came to a close as the jury found Philander Hampton guilty of the five counts of murder. This is because he had pleaded guilty to the charges. The case had gone cold and had been put under missing persons. A confession from Hampton helped law enforcement agencies to start the case again. This time they had a witness. Lee Evans still has not pleaded guilty to these charges (Henry, p. 23). There was a plea made by Lee’s defence for a mistrial but the judge, Patricia Costello, denied the motion for the mistrial. If the case was considered a mistrial, then the case would have to start all over again. Beside Hampton, Lee Evans is the only other person who truly knows what happened. This means that the prosecution is heavily reliant on his account of what happened. Since the fire destroyed the credible evidence, the prosecutors have nothing else to go by. Lee’s defence asked the witness why he did not stop the accused from doing what he allegedly did. The answer Hampton gave was that he did not know Lee was going to do it (Henry, 25). He is the one who allegedly gave Lee the matches to use to set the place on fire. The prosecution in this case has a hard time since the evidence produced by their only witness is being questioned. With his tenth grade education, Hampton seemed confused with the account of what actually happened. Hampton, in his testimony, claims he fled from the scene of the crime before it was set on fire. He explained to the jurors in the case how the accused, Lee Evans, led the victims into the deserted building and carried out the actions (Millman, p. 15). Lee acted as his own defence at the beginning but later on, he decided to involve a public defender. The credibility of the key witness was also questioned. This was bec ause of his past criminal record. He had been arrested on several occasions and charged with drug possession. He was also charged with shoplifting. The defence thinks that Hampton was coerced into agreeing to testify against his cousin. They also think that if he is the key witness, why did he have to wait this long to decide to testify (Millman, p. 25). As a witness, Hampton had a lot on his plate. Family members claim that they suspected Lee Evans from the start. This is because, at the time of the

Role of Entrepreneurs in Organizations Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Role of Entrepreneurs in Organizations - Essay Example An entrepreneur is a person who organizes and mobilizes resources-people, money, skills, ideas and market to create something that did not exist before and which is feasibility profitable.( Academy of engineering, 1978).An entrepreneur according to Drucker(1985) is someone who perceives and exploits opportunities. This implies that an entrepreneurship is a process of creating new and valuable things which includes ideas and converting into a usable product that satisfy a need (Hisrich and Peter, 1985). The increasing importance of entrepreneurship accentuates why small ventures are growing at a faster rate than larger organizations. A similar survey indicates that over the last decade, small ventures created more jobs than the larger which instead, continues to lose jobs (Drucker, 1985). Furthermore, the changes in the business environment such as harsh global as well as the local competition, sudden and unexpected alteration of demand, the rapid acceleration of technological develop ment and increase in risks. Innovation and creativity have become essential for survival, growth and profitability in today’s business world as evidenced in the leadership styles, product and market development strategic moves and innovations and immense creativity. Another feature of that has changed the face of entrepreneurs in an organization is the growing networking. This network can be characterized by increasing market forces, co-operation between firms, collaboration for research and development, subcontracting, outsourcing and strategic alliances that have leapfrogged firm’s profitability and ironed further the roles that entrepreneurship performs in organizations. As no firm can really operate on its own, each depends on the other for survival in the competitive world. Question two There are various types of entrepreneurs. The scope of entrepreneurs is determined by the nature of the business venture, the ‘real’ objective of starting up the busin ess. First, there is a business entrepreneur. This is entrepreneurs who conceptualize of a business idea, start and manage the business. In business arena, they generate noble ideas, exchange goods and services with tailoring all the marketing and brand building to attract and increase the sales volume of their products. They manufacture and innovates new and unique products and services which satisfy the customers’ needs by alleviating the prevailing problems. For instance, Sir Branson of UK serves as an imperative example. Business entrepreneur plans, organize, develop and manages corporate affairs with immense creativity and skill that champion their corporate firms into profitable ventures. For instance, former General Electric long-serving CEO, Jack Welch who stirred the firm into greater heights in performance. Second, there are technology-based entrepreneurs endowed with skill and high technical knowledge in technology. The technical entrepreneur poses high skills in p roduct crafts and focuses mainly on the product design and development so as to supply the market with sophisticated products. The non-technical entrepreneurs focus on the non-technical aspects such as marketing, distributions and pricing strategies to promote the sales of the product while the professional entrepreneurs are the one who creates new technology or an idea and sells to others in form patents and other copyrights. Third, there are motivational based entrepreneurs. First, pure motivational entrepreneur create jobs for other rather than seeking a job for himself. They pose a high desire to create a new venture or an idea that will create jobs and improve the living standards for others. Others in this category include ,induced entrepreneurs who are encouraged by the government to invest in

The Proliferation of Corruption through Transnational Crime Essay Example for Free

The Proliferation of Corruption through Transnational Crime Essay The international struggle against terrorism has caused policy analysts globally to review the repercussions of such policies on the preponderance of corruption. Corruption has been acknowledged as a perennial, global phenomenon; however, it is only in contemporary times that the gravity of its impact on peace and security have been scrutinized (Thachuk, 2005). Transnational organized crime groups have effectively corrupted those in authority to â€Å"selling their sovereignty so as to create states of convenience from which to conduct international operations.† Thus, in carrying this our, they have caused grave disturbance of financial market movements, destructions of aspiring democratic governments and have engaged in callous practices just to achieve their villainous ends (Beare, 1997). The Transparency International Newsletter has stated that these global perpetrators have established implicit agreements with corrupt government officials who virtually steal from their own citizens. The vastness and profundity of the corruption of transnational crime groups ceases to just being bothersome for commerce; nor is it a simple mechanism for fast tracking requests from government authority, or of being a financier for elections. This global problem represents a significant threat to state sovereignty, destroying both local and global transactions. Of more crucial importance is the fact that official corruption of transnational crime groups â€Å"threaten international stability and security with relative impunity† (Transparency International Newsletter, 2001 in Thachuk, 2005). Acknowledging the grave nature of the use of official corruption, this paper proceeds with the following objectives: 1) In the context of the relationship between officialdom and transnational organized crime groups what is a satisfactory definition of official corruption that suits the purposes of research into what corrupt practices actually facilitate the activities of such groups; 2) identify which branches or units of government are most susceptible to corruption in this context (for example: police, customs, immigration departments) and why; and 3) through an extensive review of related literature, cite concrete examples from a global scale of the corrupt practices that facilitate the activities of organized crime groups. International Response to Organized Crime and Corruption International operations such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) have provided a means for scrutinizing various aspects of organized crime regulation through the study of specific factors in organized crime operations like money laundering. By ensuring that such processes are carried out while still respecting the sovereignty of involved countries, the knowledge regarding organized crime has immensely benefited (Beare, 1997). At present, most international efforts against organized crime have highlighted the importance of examining organized crime with respect to the location of its operations. Illegal markets initiate the proliferation of criminal activities. These are influenced by the presence of risk factors as well as the level of demand. The current approach being utilized is a joint international effort, instead of the traditional ranking systems (Beare, 1997; Thachuk, 2005). This collaborative method which is a recent development differs widely from the other approaches being utilized for the reduction of corruption. Similar to the 1960’s view on organized crime, the dominant outlook is that corruption is a threat located in foreign shores which can be remedied by identifying those nations which are the top violators (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). With such a set-up, people may fail to see that some corrupt and legitimate practices may be inextricably intertwined. Also the nature of corruption from this viewpoint would be explained without the needed historical, political and social contexts. Lastly, such an approach works on an assumption that there is a uniform definition of corruption, which may not be the same across boundaries (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). â€Å"Corruption† is currently being viewed as if its definition was the same across nations. In a similar sense, â€Å"organized crime† had previously been used as an umbrella term for all types of criminal activities. However, the issue of corruption across different jurisdictions would inevitably involve encountering different definitions and other factors. Although the usual analyses of corruption would readily acknowledge historical factors behind the development of corrupt behavior, they would still fail in recognizing that the definition of corruption varies from place to place. Some forms of behavior may be more widely accepted as corrupt when compared to others depending on the locality. Four arbitrary categories from a western perspective may be used to demonstrate the wide scope of this concept (Beare, 1997): Bribes/kick-backs. Payments are demanded or expected in return for being allowed to do legitimate business. The payment becomes the license to do business. Those who make the payments are allowed to compete or to win contracts; Election/Campaign Corruption. Illegal payments are made at the time of elections to secure continuing influence; Protection. Officials accept payments (or privilege) from criminal organizations in exchange for permitted them to engage in illegitimate businesses; Systemic top-down corruption. A nations wealth is systematically syphoned off or exploited by the ruling elites (Beare, 1997, p. 157). The aforementioned categories are neither complete nor exclusionary. They are only listed for the purpose of comparing the differences between the ill effects arising from each. Bribes or Kick-backs Bribes or kick-backs are the small or large payments which are made to facilitate the acquisition of permits, licenses and contracts. Businesses which are legal participate in this transaction in order to hasten processes or to gain an advantage over other competitors. According to Ernesto Savona (1995), being â€Å"sly† (furbo) in this case utilizing bribery would mean that a person is simply taking advantage of opportunities. However, this should still be within acceptable limits, as those charged and eventually convicted with corruption in Italy had exceeded the acceptable boundaries (Savona, 1995). There seems to be a culture of acceptance in some areas such as Latin America, where individuals in power are still expected to patronize and support people with whom they have relationships with such as their family and party (Savona, 1995). This can be seen with police demand â€Å"bites† (mordidas) instead of issuing tickets for violations, undisclosed donations being accepted by political parties, bidding for out-of-court â€Å"settlements† and the use of â€Å"speed money† to steer clear of bureaucracy (Savona, 1995). Although a uniform definition is yet to be agreed upon for this form of corruption, it nevertheless receives the most media attention. The past few years have seen how countries are openly ranked in this form of corruption based on their â€Å"reputation† in engaging in this sort of act. One organization engaging in the elimination of corruption in business practices is Transparency International (TI) (e.g. Hong Kong Independent Commission Against Corruption sponsored 1983 in Wash. DC., 1985 NY City, 1987 Hong Kong, 1989 Sydney Australia, 1992 Amsterdam, the Netherlands, 1993 Cancun Mexico, 1995 Beijing, China). This organization had sponsored several surveys which rated the â€Å"perceived level† of corruption in different countries. The 1995 TI Corruption Index tried to assess just how much corruption has affected businesses. In a similar study, Huberts (1996) interviewed delegates from different countries regarding public corruption, service and ethics. He goes on to say how his study is not well received among academicians, but aside from the sensitive nature of the data, this reception of the study may simply be due to the wide range or types of corruption. These surveys are limited to the fact that they may very well just be measuring corruption in its most blatant forms (Criminal Justice International, 1996; Companies and their Consciences, 1996). Election Corruption Providing the needed funding as well as â€Å"other forms† of support during the election period is part of this form of corruption. This is accomplished to obtain needed â€Å"influence†.   Even with international observers, many voters in countries such as Thailand and India continue to expect that their votes would be bought. Corruption continues to be an issue even after elections as the heads of state of Venezuela, Brazil, Spain and Italy serve as specific cases (Beare, 1997; Wright, 1997). In the United States, the issue of campaign costs which can run up to the hundreds of millions of dollars for candidates cannot be overlooked. MacArthur (1997) did not want to place the blame solely on the backers and businessmen alone. He cited how politicians would tend to sell different items such including an intangible commodity called â€Å"access†, which is occasionally translate to a vote for a certain bill (MacArthur, 1997). The public was exposed to stories which involved White House bedrooms being rented out for sleepovers and of Clinton being associated with Indonesian campaign funds. The purchasing of â€Å"access† and influence in political Action Committees was also readily seen. MacArthur (1997) continues to say that a candidate clamoring for reforms backed by three billionaires is no more bought than a party hack that has spent his career in obtaining money from millionaires in several occasions. Sometimes, cultural factors may affect how society would react to this form of corruption. Savona (1995) cited how a focus on corruption enabled Italy to discredit or oust old ruling class and expedited the change towards a new political system. He continued to state his fear on how new corrupters could be produced who would be able to escape the eyes of law enforcers, having learned their lesson from those who had been caught earlier. Those politicians who appear to be greatly opposed towards corruption in Latin America at times may very well have been the primary violators themselves.   The Wall Street Journal (1996) continues by citing a particular news-weekly which stated how everyone is â€Å"an accuser and accused†. Protection Another type of corruption involves allowing criminal acts to pervade in exchange for money, which is an activity aided by the presence of corrupt officials. Activities which involve the importation and exportation of goods such as drug trafficking and smuggling operations as well as illegal gambling are some probable activities (Beare, 1997). Aside from an environment provided by government which may be conducive, organized crime continues to persist because of corrupt relations existing between violators and regulatory or enforcement agencies. Through the use of violent and intimidating acts, criminal organizations may be able to influence any dispute settlement activities that are raised to control agencies. Thus, these very control agencies may be the same ones allowing the criminal operations (MacArthur, 1997). Within formerly communist and dictator-led countries, newly-granted freedoms have resulted in varying forms of social disorganization. The existence of illegal activities such as black markets under former regimes coupled with new freedoms has ensured that corruption would be rampant (MacArthur, 1997).  Ã‚  Ã‚   New laws and regulations may have the same effect as changes in government and political alignments. Approximately 800 million pounds was lost through fraudulent means in the 1996 European Union budget. Some transnational operations involve complicit government officials. Various opportunities for corruption are presented during the determination of when taxes are applicable and reimbursable. Corruption has also been traced in countries receiving aid for their transition governments or which has experienced an environmental disaster (Leiken, 1996). One case has at its center two professors from Harvard embezzling a government funds amounting to 57 million dollars for a project in Russia. One journalist stated: â€Å"The case is certain to run and run, doubtless spawning lawsuits as it goes. But for the Russians it is, at the very least, a reminder that all is not always as rosy as it sounds either in the cradle of democracy or in the stratosphere of its academia† (Harvard Caught Up in Moscow Row, 1997). Another incident in 1996 involved the arrest of a United States immigration agent by Hong Kongs Independent Commission Against Corruption. The very same agent who had cracked down on smuggling operations realized that the profits to be made were too tempting. By negotiating with various Honduran and Hong Kong officials, he was able to organize a smuggling operation for himself (Beare, 1997). Corrupt individuals may also be found in the implementation of environmental laws. Bonanno and Constance (1996) have cited how corporations, specifically those involved in the tuna-dolphin issue, are constantly in search of countries with more lenient environmental laws as well as cheaper labor and taxes. They had delved on how purse-seine tuna fishing yielded greater catches of tuna while also capturing dolphins at the same time. Prohibitions were implemented by the United States against this particular from of fishing (Bonanno Constance, 1996). Some strategies which have been employed by corporations involve changing the flags of fishing boats into those of foreign nations as well as the shipment of tuna from third-party countries. In a similar case, there is believed to be an underground garlic smuggling operation resulting from the protective tariffs on garlic in the state of California. Corrupt officials have become the beneficiaries of these illegal activities (Myers in Beare, 1997). Corruption in the ranks of police officials has also been an issue of concern for many countries such as Canada. Although these cases may be uncommon, police corruption cases tend to be highly-publicized (Myers in Beare, 1997). One possible explanation could be the development of legislation which benefits those individuals participating in money laundering investigations and sting operations. Coupled with the confiscation of huge volumes of money and drugs, the police can become especially prone to taking part in corruption (Mollen Commission Report, 1994). Different places have earned their own notorious reputations for corruption in their respective police organizations. However, the task of making approximate comparisons regarding the corruption among these different areas would prove to be seemingly impossible. This is because corruption that has not yet been caught or identified in some districts would never be accounted for (Mollen Commission Report, 1994). Systemic Corruption In 1992, an ironic sequence of events had unfolded in Brazil starting from the impeachment of then President Fernando Collor de Mello for graft and influence peddling after he had won the election through an anti-corruption platform. Following this, many of those who had accused him in Congress were also charged with embezzlement involving the committees which they had headed. A poll in 1993 had cited corruption and a weak government as the reason behind the dwindling support for democracy (Beare, 1997). This systemic category of corruption has been the most highly publicized and is characterized by the vulnerability of the whole society to different forms of corruption. At times this may even involve the illegal transfer of wealth from the country to its leadership. An illegal activity of this nature would usually be accomplished over a lengthy period of time before the voluntary exit or forced ouster of the leader. Corruption of this type is a combination of the first three types of corruption and usually implicates the elite (Beare, 1997). Countering Corruption Following the September 11, 2001 terrorism attack in New York and Washington, the chief of Interpol, Ronald Noble (2001) expressed that the struggle to combat terrorism cannot be won over through the military’s efforts alone. He further cites, [the most sophisticated security systems, the best structures, or trained and dedicated security personnel are useless, if they are undermined from the inside by a single act of corruption (Noble, 2001). The fight against transnational crime groups’ corrupt and terroristic activities is effectively staged through the democracy strongly practiced within the states they use.   While this is being said, many of the states involved are experiencing the grave repercussions of corruption by transnational crime groups. An outcome is more stringent efforts towards its resolution, including conferences, agreements and pledges made by global and regional entities collaborating to solve the issue (Noble, 2001). The Organization for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) and the Asian Development Bank (ADB) have established a partnership aiming to control if not totally eradicate bribery, especially among foreign officers. These parties concur that by addressing corruption as a mere crime may not adequate; it may be more practical to delve into the root causes of the problem and its role in the promotion of transnational crime.   Other entities which have pledged their commitment in combating corruption is the African Union and the Organization of American States (Introductory Proceedings ADB/OECD Conference on Combating Corruption in Asian and Pacific Economies, 1999).   An overarching strategy for the encouragement of effective governance is by implementing â€Å"structural, legal, and administrative† foolproof policy changes that will discourage corrupt activities among citizens as well as those in authority. In addition, being able to develop a country economically and strengthening its institutions will weaken the hold of transnational crime groups over these nations. Other measures to counter corruption practices is to beef up the military and security agencies of the country. For instance, the provision of financial assistance of the International Monetary Fund of the World Bank partly anchors its lending decision to the country’s initiatives to counter corruption. They have put exceptional premium on the practice of effective governance spelled out in terms of fiscal responsibility and the honesty and morality with which they undertake their transactions within the government, as attested to by the statutes stated in the IMF Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency (2001). The IMF Code of Good Practices on Fiscal Transparency (2001) specifies goals for principles and practices, culled from the IMP’s prescription of good governance among its affiliate nations. Transparency International is a non-governmental organization that offers comprehensive hand-holding to those nations which aim to counter corruption and financial maneuvering of transnational crime groups (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). To carry this out, it disseminates a bulletin on â€Å"corruption-in essence using publicity and peer pressure† to encourage administrations into supporting similar programs intended to battle corruption. The group has emphasized the revelation of terrorism-related money laundering acts (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). Such a profound perspective on battling corruption is better than superficial initiatives. Numerous agreements which have been drafted since time immemorial have not made a difference in resolving this issue while transnational crime groups continue to steal â€Å"officially† from these nations (Transparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001). Instead, the most effective vehicle for countering prevalent corruption in any number of nations is the media. The â€Å"name and shame† lobbying of the media has had the most potent impact, and has made the public keenly informed about corruption. The pubilcity has emphasized the accusations wrought on the corrupt political leaders, including Guilio Andreotti, Noboru Takeshita, Alberto Fujimori, and Carlos Salinas, to mention a few (Tranparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001). More alarming is the fact that politicians use information on corrupt acitivities to launch smear campaigns against their adversaries. These have worked effectively in nations including Italy, France, Mexico, Costa Rica, Thailand, Japan, and Nigeria, among others. This strongly signifies the negativity raised among the public on corrupt officials, and those that benefit from breaching the trust of the voting public (Transparency International Global Corruption Report, 2001). Once they have been legally appointed as government officials, the honesty which they have once professed gives out and they are eaten by the corrupt system. I There have been global agreements put in place to resolve various human rights issues that have been inflicted by transnational crime groups. The metrics against   transnational crime ought to be taken in on the national, regional and global scales to attain authentic effectiveness. A handful of these initiatives have been established; for instance, in 1988 the UN Convention Against Illicit Traffic in Narcotics Drugs and Psychotropic Substances or the UN Drug Convention, it has been necessary to ask for the legal help of all nations participating in the conference (Savona Defeo, year). Another initiative at the regional level is the formation of the Financial Action Task Force at the Economic Summit of Industrialized Countries in 1989. The group aims to draft a global perspective in the resolution of money laundering. In the latter part of 1988, the Group of Ten countries established the Basel Committee on Banking Regulations and Supervisory Practices, and the Council of Europe has a draft convention on money laundering (Savona Defeo, year). Two years after in 1990, the European Plan to Fight Drugs has been instituted by the Europeran Community. The program has been further developed in 1992 (Labrouse Wallon, year). These initiatives at all levels will contribute significantly to the resolution of the corruption traced from transnational crime which have inflicted harm to global governments and their economies.The cooperation among law enforcement forces must also be encouraged to allow the sharing of information related to the movements of these crime groups.   There has been a conference among law enforcement agencies from more than 100 countries – this Naples confrence intended to share data on transnational crime. Global protocol for such information exchange must also be crafted (National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime: Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994). However, the constraints of such initiatives are apparent at both national and global levels. For instance, in the US, they are presently very gullible to transnational crime since â€Å"federal law prohibits the CIA from sharing with the FBI intelligence that it collects abroad.† Numerous legal protections of its citizens, specifically addressing the rights of the accused, have been taken advtantaged of by high level criminals. The other loopholes between information and law enforcement are also leveraged on by these crime groups and ought to be addressed in global crime conferences (National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime: Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994). The UN has indicated that the struggle against corruption inflicted by transnational crime groups could be imporoved if there is greater collaboration among countries in taking on laws that criminalize participation or engagement with such group activities, conspiracy, laundering and asset forfeiture. This was specified in their policy proposals for the 1994 Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime (National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime: Appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level, 1994). Moreover, these documents have also uphled the implementation of measures for addressing transnational crime (The feasibility of elaborating international instruments, including conventions, against organized transnational crime, 1994). The participation of more countries has been encouraging; however, there will remain nations whose officials have been hopelessly corrupted and whose legal systems are too backward or obsolete – precluding participation into such collaboration. There will still be loopholes in these countries, and official corruption shall surely take its toll in their law enforcement capabilities. International Response to Organized Crime and Corruption International operations such as the Financial Action Task Force (FATF) have provided a means for scrutinizing various aspects of organized crime regulation through the study of specific factors in organized crime operations like money laundering. By ensuring that such processes are carried out while still respecting the sovereignty of involved countries, the knowledge regarding organized crime has immensely benefited (Beare, 1997). At present, most international efforts against organized crime have highlighted the importance of examining organized crime with respect to the location of its operations. Illegal markets initiate the proliferation of criminal activities. These are influenced by the presence of risk factors as well as the level of demand. The current approach being utilized is a joint international effort, instead of the traditional ranking systems (Beare, 1997; Thachuk, 2005). This collaborative method which is a recent development differs widely from the other approaches being utilized for the reduction of corruption. Similar to the 1960’s view on organized crime, the dominant outlook is that corruption is a threat located in foreign shores which can be remedied by identifying those nations which are the top violators (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). With such a set-up, people may fail to see that some corrupt and legitimate practices may be inextricably intertwined. Also the nature of corruption from this viewpoint would be explained without the needed historical, political and social contexts. Lastly, such an approach works on an assumption that there is a uniform definition of corruption, which may not be the same across boundaries (Transparency International Global Report, 2001). Conclusion From the review of related literature, it may be clearly gleaned that transnational crime groups aim for states which have implicit acceptance of corruption. Upon establishment in these havens, they seek corrupt officials and security personnel who will expedite their financial dealings and routine. Among the benefits they yield from this network is access to plans of the government and eventual protection of their illegal activities (Thachuk, 2005). In cleverly setting up their operations this way, they effectively allow individuals to run governments – with the latter ceasing to be an acknowledged institution. Moreover, they disrespect the law and rid it of any legitimacy. Because of their corrupt activities, these nations are deprived of opportunities to participate in international agenda. On a more encompassing scale, the use of official corruption of transnational crime groups ceases to be a problem of the concerned republics but more of a global security issue (Beare, 1997; Thachuk, 2005). The alarmingly quick development of transnational crime is an international occurrence that merits attention. The phenomenon has successfully been integrated into political channels, corrupting them to gain legitimacy for their illegal transactions. The grave outcomes of this include the deterrment of economic growth, disrespect and threat against democracy, corruption for the law and   for some nations, ethnic violations. The loopholes posed by weakness of the states, including Africa, Latin America, and Asia make them incapable of controlling their own boundaries or to form apt internal legal groups.These borders have become webs of netting through whose holes passes the business of organized crime through corruption. The impending danger posed on countries by corruption of transnational crime groups is not caused by a single criminal entity. Instead, this is composed of a vast criminal network that has potent political and economic networks. They have effectively used corruption to deter law enforcement institutions to undertake what is just to curb criminal activity. In various countries, organized crime have substituted for the various roles of the state, serving as an obstacle to economic growth and to the development of budding democracies. Corruption as a social phenomenon and problem is not constrained by geographic borders. Each nation does have its own share of clientelism, patronage and selfish government officials. While certain nations only have a handful of common denominators in the historical, political and economic spheres, this does not imply they may not share the same corruption issues (Thachuk, 1995). While this may be the daunting case, majority of these nations have expressed their willingness to participate, share their competence, undertake training and work collaboratively with non-government organizations to solve the problem. These NGOs are hopeful that there may be mechanisms ingrained in government structure that may be utilized for detecting corrupt activities, reprimanding those involved and to attempt to foolproof the system (well nearly). In the long haul, countries are bound to feel the tension exerted on them to comply with anti-corruption measures. Democracy shall cease to be a faà §ade in promoting corrupt activities of transnational crime groups, conspiring with government officials, security and police personnel, and customs officers. Simultaneously, the pressure for governments to increase honesty and integrity in their dealings will also be focused on. The driver for these changes shall be sourced from â€Å"grassroots movements† fueled by media support. The documentation and critique of the corrupt activities of public officials is a crucial obstacle to curb immoral use of power (Thachuk, 2005). Some strategies being employed for reducing corruption may actually yield adverse results. Focus on business-related corruption is primarily motivated by Western interests which are usually detrimental to the less developed countries. An undesirable consequence arising from the labeling of nations as corrupt includes the realization of such labels through self-fulfilling prophecy. By garnering high ratings for corruption in Huberts or TI surveys, corrupt practices may actually become normalized or socially accepted in those communities (Beare, 1997). The Council of Europe utilizes a FATF-type evaluation procedure which allows member states to evaluate each other in terms of their anti-money laundering and corruption conventions. Through the meticulous review of anti-corruption legislation and policies from the different countries, corruption could then be placed in its proper context and positive results might then be achieved. However, the characteristic of corruption being deeply ingrained within the culture of different societies and thus taking various forms, may prove to be quite a hindrance (Beare, 1997). Corruption can be quite enticing for certain governments, high-ranking officials, corporations and sectors of the public. Then, it would not be advisable to think along the line that one can corruption-proof an area. On the other hand, a system should be put in place which constantly strives to create and maintain a culture of intolerance towards corruption. A possible means for combating corruption would be through changes in the personnel or other conditions such as the economic and social climate. By focusing on certain aspects of corruption, these can then be specifically identified and consequently addressed. References Beare, M. (1997). Corruption and organized crime: Lessons from history. Crime, Law Social Change, 28, 155-172. Beare, M.E. (1996). Criminal conspiracies: organized crime in canada. Toronto: Nelson Canada. Bonanno, A. Constance, D. (1996). Caught in the net: The global tuna industry. In   Environmentalism and the state. Lawrence Kansas: University of Kansas Press. Companies and their consciences. In the Economist, 1996 July 20, 15. Criminal Justice International. (1996). 1995 TI Corruption Index, 12(4), July-August. Global Corruption Report 2001. (2001). Politics and patronage: Democratic ideals compromised. Transparency International. Harvard caught up in Moscow row.(1997). The Independent, 22 May. Huberts, L. (1996). Expert views on public corruption around the globe. PSPA Publications, Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam Boelelaan, The Netherlands. Introductory Proceedings ADB/OECD Conference on Combating Corruption in Asian and Pacific Economies. (1999). Asian Development Bank. Labrouse, A. Wallon, A. (eds.) (1993). La Planete des drogues: organisations criminelles, guerres el blanchiment. Paris: Editions du Seuil. Leiken, R.S. (1996). Controlling the global corruption epidemic. Foreign Policy, 55-73. MacArthur, J.R. (1997). The real corrupters of the US electoral system. Globe and Mail, 21 March, Al7. Mollen Commission Report. (1994). Commission to investigate allegations of police corruption and the anti-corruption procedures of the police department, 7 July. Myers, W. (1997). Interview with Director of the Centerfor the Study of Asian Organized Crime. In Beare, M. Corruption and organized crime: Lessons from history. Crime, Law Social Change, 28, 155-172. National legislation and its adequacy to deal with the various forms of organized transnational crime: appropriate guidelines for legislative and other measures to be taken on the national level. Background document for the World Ministerial Conference on Organized Transnational Crime (Naples, 21-23 November 1994), 23. Noble, R. (2001). Interpol Press Release, Oct. 8. Savona, E. Defeo, M. (1994). Money trails: International money laundering trends and prevention/control policies, Helsinki Institute for Crime Prevention and Control (HEUNI) Report prepared for the International Conference on Preventing and Controlling Money Laundering and the Use of Proceeds of Crime: A Global Approach. Courmayeur: June. Savona, E.U. (1995). Beyond criminal law in devising anticorruption policies: lessonsfrom the italian experience. Research Group on Transnational Crime, School of Law, University of Trento, Italy. Thachuk, K. (2005). Corruption and international security. SAIS Review, 25(1), Academic Research Library, 143. Transparency International. (2001). Transparency International Newsletter. (2001). December 2001. Wright, R. (1997). Democracies in peril: Freedoms excesses reduce democracys life span. Special report to the Los Angeles Times, 17   February.

Childhood Obesity Essay Example for Free

Childhood Obesity Essay Pro: My opinion is that parents should be blamed for their childs obesity, whether it be partially or fully, they do influence their childs weight. The parents of children are the ones who provide food for them, so they have direct control of what their child is consuming, so they should be able to help their child maintain a healthy weight. Parents also have control over what their children do, resulting in the fact that parents could enroll their child in an excersize program or at least stop them from sitting around inside all day. This debate is not focused on those who gain weight due to disease; it is focusing on children becoming obese due to food consumption. Con: I really disagree that parents should be blamed for their childs obesity. Its not like the parents are shoving the food down their childs throats. Kids are soley responsible for what they consume. Kids dont just eat at home. They can eat at school, with their friends at McDonalds, ect. So childrens parents arent the main influences in what thier children eat. Pro: Its not like the parents are shoving the food down their childs throats The parents are, however, buying the majority of food that their children eat. Kids are soley responsible for what they consume. Their parents are the ones who buy the food that is available at home, so how could the children be soley responsibe? They can eat at school The majority of schools have supplied healthy foods for students due to rapidly increasing rates of obesity; also, have you considered the many students who bring food from home? Con: Yes some schools do supply healthy food choices but that is only as far as i know for 1/3 of the schools population. And have you considered that schools have alternatives to just a tray lunch such as, as its referred to at my school Ale Cart. Which includes fries, burgers, nachos, everything you can find on the McDonalds Menu. So the parents buy what the kids eat at home but parents do pay attention to what they do buy their kids for food. not every parent buys their kids Fruit by the Foot, Tootsie Pops, and all that other junk that causes childhood obesity. So the parents can and do enforce healthy eating habits!!!!!!!!! Pro: not every parent buys their kids Fruit by the Foot, Tootsie Pops, and all that other junk that causes childhood obesity. Then again, not every child is obese. The parents who carelessly buy fattening foods and leave it in the house already influence what their children will eat, because why choose to eat vegetables when junk food is lying there? Children do not understand this, and therefore will eat the food that is bought by their parents. The majority of children do not eat their food outside of home except for at school, and at school, I know that many countries are opting for a change in food, and this will probably happen. Also, once again, parents could urge their children to excersize or play outside instead of sitting around all day Con: Okay many countries are opting for healthy food but that hasnt happened yet so as of now its not there. And how can parents urge their kids to play outside or whatever when their busy buying food thats not good for their kids as you previously stated!!!! And I know you said we arent debating with diseases and stuff but it is an inevitable fact that obesity is in the gene pool. So like its already in the genes and the parent has no controll over that. So how is it the parents fault?!?!?!?!? And this is off the subject but do you have any idea where i can find decent Values and Value Criterion for school debate cases!?!?!?!?! And how can kids play outside when they have homework!?!?!?!?! Where I go to school there is alot to be tackled; like the debate case I have to have done by 4th period tommorow for instance. Pro: And I know you said we arent debating with diseases and stuff Then why bring it up? I clearly stated in my opening statement that we are not debating about diseases and such, but food consumption. Therefore, for everything mentioned about diseases, I will call it out as invalid. And how can kids play outside when they have homework!?!?!?!?! How do people do extra curricular activites? Homework, on average, takes up thirty minutes to two hours for an elementary school, and perhaps one hour to two hours for gifted. Most schools release children from school around 3:00. This leaves them with four hours at the LEAST with the maximum amount of homework. And how can parents urge their kids to play outside or whatever when their busy buying food thats not good for their kids as you previously stated!!!! Parents do not spend their lives in grocery stores; they could at least mention excersize OR allow them to do extracurricular activities after school. However, when parents notice that their child is obese, they should at least try to change their lifestyle a bit, because a familys lifestyle really does make a difference for a childs weight. Who directs the familys way of life? The parents. Where I go to school there is alot to be tackled Based on your profile, it says that you are in highschool. Highschool is VERY different than elementary school in the amount of work and such people get. Parents are at fault for their childs obesity because they buy the food. They are in charge of what their children do, and they lead the lifestyle of their children. Children need excerize and healthy food. Parents are responsible for both areas. Lack of these things will cause obesity. Parents have control over this, and can stop it. Childrens schools are not guilty, because the majority are changing their menu to stop the rapid growth rate of obesity. Fast food places do hold a bit of the blame, but like my opponent has said before, its not like theyre shoving food down the kids throats. My opponent has failed to prove any clear points as to why parents should NOT be blamed for obesity; he has only provided counter-arguments. Hopefully he will state many points in the final round.

The Alma Ata Declaration

The Alma Ata Declaration The Alma Ata Declaration was formally adopted at the International Conference on Primary Health Care in Alma Ata (in present Kazakhstan) in September 1978 (WHO, 1978). It identifies and stresses the need for an immediate action by all governments, all health and development workers and the world community to promote and protect world health through Primary Health Care (PHC) (ibid). This has been identified by the Declaration as the key towards achieving a level of health that will allow for a socially and productive life by the year 2000. The principles of this declaration have been built on three (3) key aspects which include: Equity It acknowledges the fact that every individual has the right to health and the realisation of this requires action across the health sector as well as other social and economic sectors. Participation It also identifies and recognises the need for full participation of communities in the planning, organisation, implementation, operation and control of primary health care with the use of local or national available resource. Partnership It strongly supports the idea of Partnership and collaboration between government, World Health Organisation (WHO) and UNICEF, other international organisations, multilateral and bilateral agencies, non-governmental organisations, funding agencies, all health workers and the world community towards supporting the commitment to primary health care as well as increasing financial and technical support especially in developing countries. Other important principles identified by the Declaration include: health promotion and the appropriate use of resources. The declaration calls on all governments to formulate strategies, policies and actions to launch and sustain primary health care and incorporate it into the national health system. It was endorsed by the World Health Assembly in 1978 hence enshrining it into the policy of the WHO (Horder, 1983). Background Back in the 1960s and 1970s, many developing countries of the world gained independence from their colonial leaders. In efforts to provide good quality healthcare service for the population, these new governments established teaching hospitals, medical and nursing schools most of which were located in urban areas (Hall Taylor, 2003) thus creating a problem of access to good quality health service especially for people that reside in rural communities. Successful programmes were initiated by Tanzania, Sudan, Venezuela and China in the 1960s and 1970s to provide primary care health services that was basic as well as comprehensive (Benyoussef Christian, 1977; Bennett, 1979). It is on the basis of these programmes that the term Primary Health Care was derived (Hall Taylor, 2003). In low income countries, the primary health care strategy as described by the Alma Ata was very influential in setting health policy during the 1980s however in high income countries such as the United Kingdom, it was considered irrelevant on the presumption that the level of primary care service was already well developed (Green et al., 2007). Primary health care has been defined in the Declaration of Alma Ata as; essential health care based on practical, scientifically sound and socially acceptable methods and technology made universally accessible to individuals and families in the community through their full participation and at a cost that the community and country can afford to maintain at every stage of their development in the spirit of self reliance and self-determination. It forms an integral part both of the countrys health system, of which it is the central function and main focus, and of the overall social and economic development of the community. It is the first level of contact of individuals, the family and community with the national health system bringing health care as close as possible to where people live and work, and constitutes the first element of a continuing health care process. (WHO, 1978) The Alma Ata Declaration brought about a shift on emphasis towards preventive health, training of multipurpose paramedical workers and community based workers (Muldoon et al., 2006). In order to achieve the global target of health for all by the year 2000, goals were being set by the WHO (WHO, 1981) some of which include: At least 5% of gross national product is spent on health. A reasonable percentage of the national health expenditure is devoted to local health care. Equitably distribution of resources At least 90% of new-borne infants have a birth weight of at least 2500g. The infant mortality rate for all identifiable subgroups is below 50 per 1000 live-births. Life expectancy at birth is over 60 years. Adult literacy rate for both men and women exceeds 70%. Trained personnel for attending pregnancy and child birth and caring for children for at least 1 year of age. It has been over 30 years now that the Declaration of Alma Ata was adopted by the WHO. A look at the current health trend around the world especially in developing countries such Nigeria, Ghana, Niger, Zimbabwe and so many others will reveal that the goal of achieving health for all by the year 2000 through primary health care has not been a reality. Although there have been reasonable improvement in immunisation, sanitation and access to safe water, there is still impediments in providing equitable access to essential care worldwide (WHO, 2010) What went wrong? Lawn et al. (2008) explain that the Cold War significantly impeded the desired impact expectation of the Alma Ata Declaration in the sense that global developmental policy at that time was dominated by neo-liberal macro economical and social policies. The effect of this on poorer countries of the world particularly in Africa was implementation of structural adjustment programmes in effort to reduce budget deficit through devaluations in local currency and cuts in public spending. This resulted in the removal of subsidies, cost recovery in the health sector and cut backs in the number of medical health practitioners that could be hired. The introduction of user charges and encouragement of privatisation of services during this period had an untoward effect on poor people who could not afford to pay for such services. The combination of these factors hence resulted in part to the crippling of the quality of service that can be provided at the primary care level. People who could afford such service resorted to health service offered at secondary or tertiary care which in most cases is difficult to access. The introduction of a new concept of Selective Primary Health Care as proposed within a year of the adoption of the Alma Ata Declaration by Walsh Warren (1979) changed the dimension of primary health care. This interim approach was proposed due to the difficulty experienced in initiating comprehensive primary health care services in countries with authoritarian leadership (Waterston, 2008). Walsh Warren (1979) argued that until comprehensive primary health care can be made available to all, services that are targeted to the most important diseases may be the most effective intervention for improving health of a population. The measures suggested include; immunisation, oral rehydration, breast feeding and the use of anti malarias. This selective approach was considered as being more feasible, measurable, rapid and less risky, taking away decision making and control away from the community and placing it upon consultants with technical expertise hence making it more attractive partic ularly to funding agencies (Lawn et al., 2008). An example of a selective primary care approach is the Expanded Programme on Immunisation (EPI). Selective primary health care is concerned with providing solutions to particular diseases such as HIV/AIDS and tuberculosis while comprehensive primary care as proposed the Alma Ata begins with providing a strong community infrastructure and involvement towards tackling health issues (Baum, 2007). The shift in maternal, new-borne and child health as a result of programmes that removes control from the community hinders the actualisation of the goals of primary health care as emphasized by the Alma Ata Declaration. The reversal of policy in the 1990s by the WHO and other UN agencies to discourage traditional birth attendants and promoting facility based birth with skilled personnel (Koblinsky et al., 2006) is an example of such. The World Banks report Investing in Health which was published in 1993 saw the World Bank become a great influence and major key player in international public health as such robbing the WHO of the prestigious position (Baum, 2007). It considers investments for interventions that only have the best impact on population health as such removing local control and advocating a vertical approach to health. This move counteracts the process of the social change described by the Alma Ata Declaration which is necessary for realisation of its goals. These go to show that consistency both in leadership (locally and globally), policy as well as good evidence (to drive policy making and actions), are important ingredients for global initiatives to succeed. What went right? Even with the several elements that prevailed against the achievement of the collective goals of the Alma Ata Declaration, several case studies show that when provided with a favourable environment, primary health care as prescribed by the Alma Ata is sufficient to bring about a significant improvement in the health status of any population or country. Case study 1: Primary Health Care in Gambia Using data obtained from a longitudinal study conducted by the United Kingdom Medical Research Council over a 15 year period for a population of about 17,000 people in 40 villages in Gambia, Hill et al. (2000) compared infant and child mortality between village with and without primary health care. The extra services that were provided in the villages with primary health care include: a village health worker, a paid community nurse for every 5 villages and a trained traditional birth attendant. Maternal and child health services with vaccination programme were accessible to residents of both primary health care and non primary health care villages. There was marked improvement in infant and under 5 mortality in both sets of villages. After primary health care system was established in 1983, infant mortality dropped from 134/1000 in 1982 83 to 69/1000 in 1992 94 in the primary health care villages and from 155/1000 to 91/1000 in non primary health care villages over the same period of time. Between 1982 and 83 and 1992-94, the death rates for children aged 1-4 fell from 42/1000 to 28/1000 in the primary health care villages and from 45/1000 to 38/1000 in the non primary health care villages. However, in 1994 when supervision of primary health care was weakened, infant mortality rate in primary health care villages rose to 89/1000 for primary health care village in 1994 96. The rate in non primary health care village fell to 78/1000 for this period. The implementation and supervision of primary health care is associated with a significant effect on infant mortality rates for these groups of villages that benefitted from the programme. Case study 2: Under 5 mortality and income of 30 countries To assess the progress for primary health care in countries since Alma Ata, Rohde et al. (2008) analysed life expectancy relative to national income and HIV prevalence in order to identify over achieving or under achieving countries. The study focused on 30 low income and middle income countries with the highest year reduction of mortality among children less than 5 years of age and it described coverage and equity of primary health care as well as other non health sector actions. The 30 countries in question have scaled up selective primary care (immunisation, family planning) and 14 of these countries have progressed to comprehensive primary care which has been marked with high coverage of skilled birth attendants. Equity with skilled birth attendance coverage across income groups was accessed as well as access to clean water and gender inequality in literacy. These 30 countries were grouped into countries with selective primary care; mixture of selective and comprehensive primary health care; and comprehensive primary health care alone. The major players among countries with comprehensive primary health care are Thailand, Brazil, Cuba, China and Vietnam. Overall, Thailand tops the list and it has comprehensive primary health care. Maternal, new-borne and child health in Thailand were prioritised even before Alma Ata and has been able to increase coverage for immunisation and family planning interventions. The Government investment in district health systems provided a foundation for comprehensive primary health care in maternal, new-borne and child health as well as other essential services. Community health volunteers also played a significant role towards Thailands medical advancement. They promoted the use of water sealed latrines to improve sanitation and were very instrumental towards the decline of protein calorie malnutrition in pr e-school children in the past 20 years (WHO, 2010). Participation of the community health volunteers is a major source of community involvement into health care of Thailand (ibid). The following factors were identified as important lessons from high achieving countries: accountable leadership and consistent national policy progress with time; building coverage of care and comprehensive health systems with time; community and family empowerment; district level focus which is supported by data to set priorities for funding, track results as well as identify and redress disparities; and prioritising equity, removing financial barriers for poorest families and protection against unavoidable health cost. Case study 3: Integration of cognitive behaviour based therapy into routine primary health care work in rural Pakistan Rahman et al. (2008) in a cluster-randomised control study in Pakistan shows the benefits derived when cognitive behaviour therapy in postnatal depression is integrated with community based primary health care. Training was provided to the primary health care workers in the intervention group to deliver psychological intervention. The health care workers also receive monthly supervision and monitoring. Significant benefit (lower depression and disability scores, overall functioning and perception of social support) was reported in the intervention group to suggest that this kind of measures as supported by the Alma Ata can drive the initiative towards Health for all. It is evident and clear that countries that practiced comprehensive primary health care as enshrined by the Alma Ata reaped great benefits in terms of population health improvement. Although it has been argued that comprehensive primary health care is too idealistic, expensive and unattainable (Hall Taylor, 2003), evidence suggest that it is more likely to deliver better health outcomes with greater public satisfaction (Macinko et al., 2003). This kind of care can deal with up to 90% of health demands in low income countries (World Bank, 1994). Relevance of Alma Ata in this present time Our present world that has been characterised by marked epidemiological transition in health. Low income countries as well as high income ones are faced with increasing prevalence of non communicable as well as chronic disabling disease (Gillam, 2008) hence, the existence of infectious diseases (malaria, HIV/AIDS, Tuberculosis etc), and diseases like cardiovascular disease and diabetes. For low income countries such as sub-Sahara African Countries, this constitutes a major health problem because their health systems are mainly oriented towards providing services inclined with maternal and child health, acute or episodic illnesses. As such current health systems need to have the capacity to provide effective management for the current disease trend. The Alma Ata provides a foundation for how such effective health service can be provided. Because, primary health care is the first line of contact an individual has to health care, it is thus very influential in determining community heal th especially when the community is fully empowered to participate. As societies modernise, as it is the case in our current world, the level of participation increases and people want to have a say in what affects their lives (Garland Oliver, 2004). Thus, the level participation in health care is better off and more powerful in this present time than it was when it was the Alma Ata was adopted. Evidence suggest that the values as enshrined by the Alma Ata are becoming the mainstream of modernising societies and it is a reflection of the way people look at health and what they expect from their health care system (WHO, 2008). Alma Ata failed in some countries because the Government of such countries refused to put strategies towards sustaining a strong and vibrant primary health care system that is appropriate to the health needs of the community such that access is improved, participation and partnership is encouraged and health is improved in general. There is no goal standard guideline or manual on Alma Ata but individual governments have to develop their own strategies which should be well suited towards meeting their own needs. The Alma Ata founding principles is still relevant towards achieving these goals especially as it brings health care to peoples door step as it encourages training of people to efficiently and effectively deliver health services. Evidence has shown that there is a greater range of cost effective interventions than was available 30 years ago (Jamison et al., 2006). It is for these reasons that primary health care is essential towards achieving the millennium development goals e specially as it concerns child survival, maternal health, and HIV/AIDS, malaria, tuberculosis and other diseases. The Alma Ata emphasises the importance of collaboration as an important tool towards introducing, developing and maintaining primary health care. This partnership as supported by the Alma Ata is essential to increase technical and financial support to primary health care especially in low income countries. It is a current trend to find an increasing mixture of private and public health systems as well as increasing private-public partnerships. Governments, donor and private organisations are now working together to promote and protect health unlike after Alma Ata (OECD, 2005). There is also increased funding and this is shifting from selective global funds to strengthening health systems through sector wide approaches (Salama et al., 2008). This kind of collaborations is a step in the right direction and when it is strengthened according to the principles of the Alma Ata, it will not only improve the buoyancy of the health care system but also improve participation and equity in the sense that health care is more qualitative and accessible to the people. The years that followed after adoption of the Alma Ata by WHO member states was characterised by unstable political leadership and military dictatorship especially among low income countries which lead to neglect of the health sector. This created unfriendly environments for the development and maintenance of stable primary health care systems. In this current times however, most countries have embraced the democratic system of leadership that promotes equity, participation and partnership. Health equity is continually enjoying prominence in the dialogue of political leaders and ministries of health (Dahlgren Whitehead, 2006). Thus, the environment being created is friendlier to the Alma Ata hence making it more relevant in this time. Thirty years ago, the values of equity, people centeredness, community participation and self determination embraced by the Alma Ata was considered as being radical but today these values have become widely share expectations for health (WHO, 2008). Our current time has been marked by gross technological advancement which was not available in the 1970s. There is also an increased wealth of knowledge and literature on health and on the growing health inequalities between and within countries all of which was not available 30 years ago. All these put together provides a relevant foundation to support the Alma Ata in the present time making it more relevant in delivering effective health care service. Conclusion The prevailing political and economic situation around the world make the Alma Ata more relevant than it was in 1978. However, there is still need for more to be done. There is need for the revitalisation of primary health care according to the tenets of the Alma Ata and progress made should be consistently monitored. There is also the need for an increased commitment to the virtues of health for all as well as increased commitment of resources towards primary health care which should be driven by good evidence base. It is important that emphasis be changed from single interventions that produce short term or immediate results to interventions that will create an integrated, long term and a sustainable health care system. Even with the challenges being faced so far with full implementation of the Alma Ata, the ideals are relevant still relevant now more than ever.

Competition is Great, but not Perfect :: essays papers

Competition is Great, but not Perfect In the United States today, the economy is one of the most important things to stabilize and maintain. The economy is this capitalistic nation in a way. As the economy has gone over the many years, so has the country. A good example of that is the Great Depression; everyone in the United States was doing great with the Bull Run of the market and the abundance of jobs. Then things started to change for the worst; the economy fell out with the great crash of the bare stock market and along did the people. Everything crumbled like stale bread, including people lives and families. Not until businesses rebuilt themselves and competition returned that the economy finally turned around. The country and the people, upon whose backs’ it rests finally, turned around also, pulling out of the Great Depression and returning this nation to its greatness. In the article â€Å"Competition is Great Game Plan, but not Perfect,† the author M. Ray Perryman states that the economy is doing well due to the competition between companies and firms as the title might indicate (Perryman 1). Although he states that the competition which fuels our economy has problems, like creating monopolies and companies that dominate markets, identifying them early and becoming aware of them we will be able to keep our economy on the path that it is on (1). Mr. Perryman supports this claim by using such strategies as common sense in his reasonability, relevance, and confidence by using his own voice in this successful essay. In speaking to the American public through his article, Mr. Perryman uses the rhetorical strategy of common sense and reasonability when he states such things as, â€Å"It (competition) lowers prices, enhances consumer choice, promotes innovation and forces us to use our scarce resources very efficiently† (1). This strategy works for him in because it makes a lot of sense that competition would do these things for us. Companies competing for business must always try to undercut the opponent’s prices and costs, with this more choices will be created. Another example of Perryman’s use of the common sense rhetorical strategy is when he states, â€Å"The information and technology revolution of today, which I believe to be in its infancy, is creating a wider gap between the ‘haves’ and ‘have nots’ and is likely to eliminate or greatly reduce the need for many relatively unskilled occupation (and more than a few skilled ones) over the nex t few years† (2).

Heart of Darkness: Psychoanalytic Criticism Essay -- Psychoanalysis Si

Heart of Darkness: Psychoanalytic Criticism Psychoanalytic criticism originated in the work of Austrian psychoanalyst Sigmund Freud, who pioneered the technique of psychoanalysis. Freud developed a language that described, a model that explained, and a theory that encompassed human psychology. His theories are directly and indirectly concerned with the nature of the unconscious mind. Through his multiple case studies, Freud managed to find convincing evidence that most of our actions are motivated by psychological forces over which we have very limited control (Guerin 127). One of Freud’s most important contributions to the study of the psyche is his theory of repression: the unconscious mind is a repository of repressed desires, feelings, memories, wishes and instinctual drives; many of which have to do with sexuality and violence. These unconscious wishes, according to Freud, can find expression in dreams because dreams distort the unconscious material and make it appear different from itself and more acceptable to co nsciousness. They may also appear in other disguised forms, like in language (sometimes called the Freudian slips), in creative art and in neurotic behavior. One of the unconscious desires Freud believed that all human beings supposedly suppress is the childhood desire to displace the parent of the same sex and to take his or her place in the affections of the parent of the opposite sex. This so-called â€Å"Oedipus Complex,† which all children experience as a rite of passage to adult gender identity, lies at the core of Freud’s sexual theory (Murfin 114-5). A principal element in Freud’s theory is his assignment of the mental processes to three psychic zones: the id, the ego and the superego. The id is the passional, irrational, and unconscious part of the psyche. It is the site of the energy of the mind, energy that Freud characterized as a combination of sexual libido and other instincts, such as aggression, that propel the human organism through life, moving it to grow, develop and eventually to die. That primary process of life is completely irrational, and it cannot distinguish reasonable objects and unreasonable or socially unacceptable ones. Here comes the secondary processes of the mind, lodged in the ego and the superego. The ego, or â€Å"I,† was Freud’s term for the predominantly rational, logical, orderly and conscious part of the psych... ...ut: Librairie Du Liban Publishers SAL, 1994. Guerin, Wilfred L., et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. 4th ed. New York: Oxford University Press, 1999. Hewitt, Douglas. â€Å"Conrad: A Reassessment.† World Literature Criticism. Ed. Polly Vedder. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 1992. 789-92. Hughs, Richard E. The Lively Image: Four Myths in Literature. Cambridge, MA: Winthrop Publishers, 1975. Karl, Frederick R. â€Å"A Reader’s Guide To Joseph Conrad.† World Literature Criticism. Ed. Polly Vedder. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 1992. 785-9. Leavis, F. R. â€Å"From The Great Tradition.† A Practical Reader in Contemporary Literary Theory. London: Harvester Wheatsheaf, 1996. 246-7 Mudrick, Marvin. â€Å"The Originality of Conrad.† World Literature Criticism. Ed. PollyVedder. Vol. 4. Detroit: Gale, 1992. 782-5. Murfin, Ross C. Joseph Conrad Heart of Darkness: A Case Study in Contemporary Criticism. New York: St. Martin’s Press, 1989. Saà ¯d, Edward W. Culture and Imperialism. New York: Knopf, 1979. Wright, Elizabeth. â€Å"Psychoanalytic Criticism.† Encyclopedia Of Literature And Criticism. 1991 ed. 765-7.